
Class _E« IS 
.1 



Copyright i\° 



L^Ob 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




Washington Taking the Oath of Office as President. 



ESSENTIALS 

OF 

UNITED STATES HISTORY 



BY 

WILLIAM A. MOWRY 

AND 

BLANCHE S. MOWRY 



WITH MANY MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 




SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 



I 



STANDARD BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. 

By WILLIAM A. MOWRY, A.M., Ph.D. 
First Steps in the History of Our Country. 

In collaboration with Akthur M. Mowry, A.M. For lower grades. 
334 pages. 60 cents. 

Essentials of United States History. 

In collaboration with Blanche S. Mowry. For grammar grades, 
x, 434 pages. 

A History of the United States. 

In collaboration with Arthur M. Mowry. For upper grades and 
high schools. 4S6 pages. $1.00. 

Elements of Civil Government. 

226 pages. 72 cents. With special state editions for Illinois, 
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
Vermont. 

Studies in Civil Government. 
259 pages. 96 cents. 

AMERICA'S GREAT MEN AND THEIR DEEDS. 

American Pioneers. 

In collaboration with Blanche S. Mowry. 363 pages. 65 

cents. 

American Heroes and Heroism. 

In collaboration with Arthur M. Mowry, A.M. 223 pages. 
60 cents. 

American Inventions and Inventors. 

In collaboration with Arthur M. Mowry. 298 pages. 65 

cents. 

The Territorial Growth of the United States. 

245 pages. $1.50. 
Marcus Whitman and the Early Days of Oregon. 

358 pages. $1.50. 

First Steps in the History of England. 

■By Arthur M. Mowry, A.M. 324 pages. 70 cents. 



[LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two Copies Received 

MAY 19 1906 



* / I 



Copyright, 1906, 
By Silver, Burdett and Company 



TO THE TEACHER 

The opportunity for developing a strong love for Ameri- 
can history comes when the boy or girl is beginning the seri- 
ous study of this subject. If the teacher and the text-book 
together can present the essential points in the history of 
our country in an attractive, realistic way, a lasting interest 
is assured. This interest is the best possible basis for develop- 
ing patriotism and good citizenship. 

To give a living touch to the text, the authors, in the record 
of events, have put emphasis on the personal element, on the 
men who have made American history. Grammar school 
pupils need a narrative history rather than a condensation of 
facts, dates, and names. 

It largely rests with the individual teacher to give the class 
a liking for the history hour. The discerning teacher will 
select the important topics and study them in fuller detail 
than the space of a single text-book allows; he will provide 
for the reading of interesting books listed in the bibliography 
(Appendix, page 3) ; he will enlarge upon the significant parts 
of the biographies of our leading statesmen and makers of 
history. He will not set forth the bald outline of everything 
the man did, but rather will make clear for what he was 
noted, what he did for his age and for succeeding ages. For 
example, he will make it appear that Jefferson or Madison 
was a statesman, and show the important things for which 
he should be remembered; and that Washington was a states- 
man and a soldier, while Franklin was a statesman, a diplo- 
mat, a scientist, an economist, a philosopher, and a writer 
of pure English. 



yi PREFACE 

It is well, in many cases, merely to read over the details 
of war and battles, dwelling rather on causes and effects. 
The classroom should be free from the spirit of militarism, 
and the pupils should see clearly that glory is not confined 
to the battlefield, nor patriotism to the career of the soldier. 
Attention should be given especially to the growing tendency 
among the nations to avoid wars and to settle all international 
difficulties by arbitration. Nowhere better than in the history 
lesson can we cultivate the spirit of philanthropy and good- 
will for the whole human race. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 
I. 
II. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 



X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 



SECTION I. — THE COLONIES 

PAGE 

Primitive America 1 

The Discovery of America 7 

Early Settlements 20 

The Southern Colonies 27 

The New England Colonies 43 

The Middle Colonies 56 

Life in the Colonies 65 

The French Colonies 79 

The Struggle for America 91 

SECTION II. —THE REVOLUTION 

The Colonies Alienated 100 

The Struggle for Independence (1776-1777) . 125 
The Struggle for Independence (1778-1781) . 143 
The Articles of Confederation and the Fed- 
eral Convention 164 



SECTION III. — THE NATION 

XIV. The Constitution of the United States 

XV. The United States in 1790 

XVI. Washington's Administration (1789-1797) 

XVII. John Adams's Administration (1797-1801) 

XVIII. Jefferson's Administration (1801-1809) 

XIX. Madison's Administration (1809-1817) 

XX. Monroe's Administration (1817-1825) 

XXI. John Quincy Adams's Administration 

1829) 

XXII. Jackson's Administration (1829-1837) . 

XXIII. Van Buren's Administration (1837-1841) 

XXIV. Harrison and Tyler's Administration 

1845) 

XXV. Polk's Administration (1845-1849) . . 



1825- 



1841- 



170 
175 
186 
193 
198 
208 
217 

223 

227 
234 

236 

242 



Vlll 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



( HAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. Taylor and Fillmore's Administration (1849- 

1853) 249 

XXVII. Pierce's Administration (1853-1857) 252 

XXVIII. Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861) . . . 257 
XXIX. Lincoln's First Administration (1861-1865). — 

The Civil War (1861-1863) 268 

XXX. Lincoln's First Administration (continued) — 

The Civil War (1863-1865) 294 

SECTION IV. —THE NEW NATION 

XXXI. Lincoln and Johnson's Administration (1865- 

1869) 313 

XXXII. Grant's Administration (1869-1877) 323 

XXXIII. Hayes's Administration (1877-1881) 330 

XXXIV. Garfield and Arthur's Administration (1881— 

1885) 333 

XXXV. Cleveland's First Administration (1885-1889) . 336 

XXXVI. Harrison's Administration (1889-1893) .... 339 

XXXVII. Cleveland's Second Administration (1893-1897) . 341 

XXXVIII. McKinley's First Administration (1897-1901) . 346 

XXXIX. McKinley and Roosevelt's Administration (1901- 

1905) 364 

XL. Roosevelt's Administration (1905-) 370 

XLI. The United States at the Beginning of the 

Twentieth Century 373 

APPENDICES 

APPENDIX 

A. Bibliography 3 

B. Chronology 12 

C. The Declaration of Independence 25 

D. The Constitution of the United States of America . . 29 

E. Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg 45 

F. Colonial Possessions 47 

G. States and Territories of the Union 48 

INDEX 50 



MAPS 

PAGE 

The Location of the Eastern Indian Tribes 3 

The World as Known in the Time of Columbus 8 

Toscanelli's Map, 1474 10 

The Map of Da Vinci, 1512-1516 14 

The Sloane Manuscript, 1530 15 

Mercator's Map, 1541 17 

Grants to the London and Plymouth Companies 27 

The Southern Colonies 38 

The New England Colonies 50 

The Middle Colonies 61 

European Claims to the Atlantic Slope in 1640 (colored). Following 64 

The French Occupation of North America 84 

Colonies during the French and Indian Wars (colored). Following . 90 

North America after the Treaty of 1763 98 

The Campaign around Boston, 1775-1776 115 

The Vicinity of Boston 118 

The Campaigns in New York and New Jersey 132 

The Campaigns in the Middle States 137 

The Campaigns in the South 151 

The Battleground of Yorktown 159 

The Territory of the United States after September 3, 1783 (colored). 

Following - 164 

The States and their Land Claims at the Close of the Revolution 

(colored). Following 176 

The United States in 1800 (colored). Following 198 

The United States in 1803 201 

Field of Operations in the War of 1812 212 

East and West Florida 217 

The United States in 1821 (colored). Following 218 

Routes of Travel from the Seaboard to the Mississippi . . . .221 

The Center of Population 224 

Field of Operations in the Mexican War 244 

The Mexican Cessions and the Oregon Country 245 

The Territorial Growth of the United States (colored). Following . 246 

The Result of the Compromise of 1850 249 

ix 



x ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

PAGE 

The Result of the Kansas-Nebraska Act 253 

The United States during the Civil War (colored). Following . . 268- 

The Peninsular Campaign 281 

The First Invasion of the North 283 

Field of Operations in Virginia 285 

Field of Operations in the West 288 

Field of Operations in the Southwest 290 

The Battleground of Gettysburg 295 

Sherman's Campaign in Georgia 305 

Western Half of the United States, 1870 (colored). Following . . 322 

Territorial Dependencies of the United States (colored). Following 356 
The World, showing the United States and its Dependencies (colored) 

Following 360 

The United States in 1906 (colored). Following 372 



ESSENTIALS OF 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 



SECTION I.— THE COLONIES 

CHAPTER I 

PRIMITIVE AMERICA 

i. The Land. — The North America of five hundred years 
ago was a region very different from the North America of 
to-day. The general outline of the shore was much the same. 
The same mountain ranges raised their crests towards the 
skies; the same rivers ran to the seas. But most of the land 
east of the Mississippi was covered with a forest that extended 
from the frozen lands of the North to the tropical shores of the 
southern sea. The great prairies of the interior were the 
home and the feeding ground of innumerable herds of deer, 
buffalo, and elk. The deserts of the West were vast solitudes. 

For countless ages the forces of nature had been preparing 
a land that could support a nation. Great oceans bordered 
its eastern and its western shores, and mighty rivers with far- 
reaching branches connected north with south, and east with 
west. The action of rain and snow, of frost and ice, and the 
decay of vegetation had made a soil of marvelous fertility. 
Below the ground were vast treasures of gold and silver, of 
iron and copper, and unmeasured fields of coal. But no one 
in all this great territory understood the advantage of river and 
seas; no one realized that the soil could produce more than a 

l 



2 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

bare subsistence; and few could have made use of the minerals, 
even if they had known how to take them from the ground. 

2. The Inhabitants. — Yet a people roamed through the 
forests, hunted on the prairies, and made homes for themselves 

in the cliffs of the 



West. They were 
divided into many 
tribes and spoke 
different dialects, 
but they all be- 
longed to one race 
of men and they 
were all barbari- 
ans. Their com- 
plexion was a dark 
reddish brown 
color; their cheek 
bones were high 
and their hair was 




An Indian Wigwam. 



straight, black, and thin. In summer they wore little or no 
clothing; in winter they wrapped themselves in the furs of 
animals. As nearly as can be determined, there were in all 
about five hundred thousand of these red men within the 
present limits of the United States, which is less than the 
number of inhabitants in the city of Baltimore to-day. 1 
3. Homes. — The homes of the red men varied in size and 



'The eastern half of the continent was occupied by three main tribes 
of Indians. All the region south of the present southern boundary of 
North Carolina was held by the Maskoki. North of that line the Al- 
gonquins held all the territory, except the portion which is now New- 
York State. This latter area was occupied by the strong Five Nations of 
the Iroquois — the Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas. Onondagas, and the Mo- 
hawks. The Pequots, Mohegans, Narragansctts, and Wampanoags. with 
whom the settlers in New England came in contact, were Algonquin tribes. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICA 



shape. Some were constructed of poles fastened together 
at the top and covered with bark or skins; others had straight 
sides and rounded roofs; still others had upright walls and 
slanting tops; while those of the southwest were dug out of 
the cliffs or built of stone or adobe. Yet, however much they 




The Location of the Eastern Indian Tribes. 

varied in appearance, seldom was a red man's house the home 
of one family. Some sheltered twenty people; some were 
large enough to accommodate two hundred. They were like 
great tenement houses and were noisy, dirty, and unhealthful. 
Of comfort there was little, and of privacy none at all. 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Rugs of fur and mats of woven grasses took the place of 
beds and chairs. Fire was built on the ground under a hole 
in the roof through which only a portion of the smoke escaped. 
Food was boiled in crude earthen pots or roasted on twig 
spits. A matron presided over each house. She directed 
the preparation of the food, and distributed it when it was 
cooked. Her word was the law of the household and no one, 
not even a warrior high in the councils of his tribe, dared to 
dispute it. A village was composed of several of these houses 
and was usually surrounded by a stockade, outside of which 
were the vegetable gardens. 

4. Occupations. — The red man had two duties — to pro- 
vide the meat for his wife and family, and to protect them from 

their enemies. 
As a hunter he 
rivaled the 
beasts in cun- 
ning. He could 
imitate the gob- 
ble of the turkey 
and the cry of 
the wolf so as to 
deceive those 
animals them- 
selves. He knew 
all the haunts 
of the deer and 
the feeding grounds of the buffalo. By a broken twig, or a 
track in the dust, he could tell what animals and how many 
had passed his way. He seldom missed his shot, so great 
was his skill in the use of the bow and so swift were his flint- 
pointed arrows. 

A red man could endure untold privations and sufferings 




An Indian Village in the Southwest. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICA 



without a murmur or a groan. His standing in the tribe 
depended upon his courage and his success in war. No cow- 
ard could become a chief. As a warrior he was fierce, cruel, 
and treacherous. He never, if possible, met the enemy in 
open battle, but surprised him on the trail or attacked him 
in the night. Women and 
children were either put to 
death, so that no one would 
be left to avenge the men, or 
else adopted into the conquer- 
ing tribe. All captives were 
cruelly tortured. 

5. Women. — While man 
was the provider and the pro- 
tector, woman was the drudge. 
She planted the corn, the 
beans, the squashes, and the 
tobacco; cultivated them with 
hoes made of shells or of bones; 
harvested the crops; and 
pounded the grain into meal. 
She brought the game into the 
village, dressed it, and preserved it for future use. There 
were neither horses nor cattle in America, before the white 
men came, so on a journey the woman carried the burdens 
and also prepared the camp. Almost as soon as the girls 
could walk, they were given tasks which grew longer and 
harder as their strength and stature increased. The boys 
had no duties, but ran and wrestled and shot at a mark 
with bows and arrows. 

According to the red man's idea this was not an unfair 
division of labor. If the man carried the burdens, he could 
not protect his family; if he risked his life to procure game, it 




The Indian Hunter. 

From the Statue by J. Q. A. Ward in 
Central Park, New York City. 



6 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

was only right that the wife should prepare it for food; and 
he thought that by some mysterious power she had greater 
success in raising crops from the soil than he. In his rough 
way he was usually kind to his family, and if there was trouble 
in the household, the man and not the woman had to find a 
new home. As we have seen, women controlled their homes 
and sometimes they even became the rulers of their tribes. 

6. Religion. — The red man was very religious. Every- 
thing that was new, or strange, or that he could not under- 
stand was the work of the Great Spirits or manitous. So 
he worshiped the thunder, the wind, the fire, the sun, and 
sought their aid and appeased their wrath by long fasts and 
by burnt offerings. He also believed in witches and thought 
that all dreams, however ridiculous, were sent for his guidance 
and instruction. When a youth reached manhood, he spent 
several days in a lonely spot without food. Then, if at the 
end of his fast he saw in his sleep some bird or beast, that 
creature was supposed to be his guardian spirit through life. 
He believed that existence was not ended at death, but was 
continued either in some animal or in some other country 
where customs and habits were similar to those here. So a 
warrior was buried with all his weapons about him and with 
food and drink for his journey. 

7. The Coming of the White Man. — In some sections the 
red man had a legend that a great while manitou would some- 
time visit their country. And when the white men first 
arrived, they were welcomed with'all the honors that the red 
men knew how to confer. To discover why and how the 
white men came to America it will be necessary to cross the 
Atlantic and learn something of the conditions in the Old 
World five hundred years ago. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 7 

SUMMARY 

A land rich in natural resources was inhabited by a race of 
barbarians who had no knowledge of the minerals stored 
beneath the ground or of the proper cultivation of the soil. 
They lived principally on the products of the chase and the 
vegetables of their gardens, which were cared for by the 
women. They were fierce fighters, but feared all the forces of 
nature and worshiped whatever they could not understand. 

CHAPTER II 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 

8. The Old World. — Five hundred years ago Europeans 
had a very limited knowledge of the extent of land on the 
earth's surface. Maps of that period omitted the whole of 
Australia, the most of Africa, and large portions of Asia. 
Tradition had said that somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean was 
a large island, but no one had even dreamed that a western 
hemisphere existed. In fact most people believed that the 
world was flat, and that if one went far enough to reach its 
edges, he could look down into unknown horrors. "Tell me, 
my son," asks ah old Anglo-Saxon book on geography, "why 
the sun is so red in the evening," and then replies, "Because 
it looketh down upon hell." 

Only a few hardy Norsemen had dared to venture far to 
the west, and the reports of their voyages had never reached 
southern Europe. The Atlantic was commonly Norse 
known as the Sea of Darkness, where only gods Voyages, 
might sail in safety. All sorts of fierce monsters were sup- 
posed to live in its waters, and to be large enough to destroy 
ships as well as men. The south presented equal dangers. 



8 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



There, it was said, the heat of the sun dried up all moisture, 
and ships lost their way in muddy seas and never reached 
home again. 

9. Trade with the East. — It was not strange that mari- 
ners were not eager to make explorations either to the west 
or south, until a necessity arose that compelled them to seek 



O ARCTIC 



-J^T "„' 



PACIFIC 




\ SOUTH 

\AMERIC 



r n 1 n a 1 a 



WORLD 

as Known in the 
time of Columbus. 



ANTARCTIC 



The World as Known in the Time of Columbus. 

a new route from Europe to Asia. Even five hundred years 
ago a flourishing trade was carried on between Europe and 
the East. Spices, ivory, jewels, and silks were brought by 
caravans from Asia to the Mediterranean Sea. There they 
were packed in vessels and carried to Genoa, Venice, and other 
Turks ports. In exchange for these luxuries, Europe 

in Europe, gave woolen cloths, linens, glass, and wines. There 
had been three routes between the West and the East, but 
the Turks had closed them all when they captured Constan- 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 9 

tinople in 1453 and gained control of the eastern end of the 
Mediterranean. 

Now that Europe was denied these luxuries, she desired 
them more than before, and her desire was increased by 
the new stories that were told by travelers from Cipango 
and Cathay, as Japan and China were called. Palaces and 
temples were reported to be covered with gold, and jewels 
were said to be larger and more numerous there than any- 
where else. A new route must be found. 

10. Da Gama. — The Portuguese were the most daring 
sailors of that time, and little by little they pushed their way 
down the coast of Africa. 1 As the mud banks and the dry 
seas did not appear, each journey made them a little 
more daring than before. In 1487 Bartolomeo Diaz (de'as) 
reached the southern point of Africa, but his crew com- 
pelled him to return. The king of Portugal, however, was 
convinced that the route to India had been found, and when 
he learned that this point had been called the Cape of Storms 
he said, "Nay, rather, let it be called the Cape of Good Hope." 
Yet even then ten more years went by before a ship, com- 
manded by Vasco da Gama (vas'ko da ga'ma), reached India. 
Meanwhile another voyage, far more important in its results 
than the discovery of the water route to the East, had been 
made. 

ii. The New Theory. — In spite of the almost universal 
belief that the earth was flat and the sun moved round it, a 
few earnest students had reached the conclusion that it was 
round. Toscanelli, an Italian astronomer, was the first to 
announce this theory. If, he reasoned, the earth were a 

1 The use of the compass, which was introduced into Europe from China 
by Arabian sailors, helped to give mariners courage to sail beyond the 
sight of land. Before the thirteenth century, Europeans directed their 
course upon the ocean by the sun and the stars, which were entirely use- 
less as guides in cloudy weather. 



10 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



sphere, it would be possible to reach India by sailing west; 
there was an ocean on the western coast of Europe and a 
great sea along the shores of India and China. The mariner 
who attempted to prove the truth of this theory was 
Christopher Columbus. 

1 2 . Christopher Columbus. — Columbus was born in Genoa. 
He received a good education and at an early age went to sea, 
where he had various experiences as a pirate and a slave 




'I nsi'ANELLl's MAP, 1474. 

trader. Once Columbus visited Iceland, and while there he 
possibly heard stories of the voyages that some daring Norse- 
men had made, hundreds of years before, to a land far to the 
west. Later he became a thoughtful student of geography 
and a skilled map maker. His business carried him to Lis- 
bon, in Portugal, where there was great call for maps and 
charts and where everybody was interested in the progress 
of the voyages down the coast of Africa. 

The studies and experiences of Columbus had convinced 
The Plan of him that the earth was round and he became 
Columbus, interested in Toscanelli's theory that India could 
be reached by sailing west. He desired to make a voyage 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 11 

by that route, and several letters passed between him and 
Toscanelli. In one of them the astronomer wrote, "When 
that voyage shall be accomplished it will be a voyage to 
powerful kingdoms and to cities and provinces most wealthy 
and noble. . . . For these and other reasons and many 




Christopher Columbus. 

As he appeared before Queen Isabella. 

others, I do not wonder that you, who are of great cour- 
age . . . are now inflamed with desire to execute the said 
voyage." 

13. The Preparations. — It was one thing to reach the 
conclusion that such a journey was possible, but a very differ- 
ent matter to get governmental aid, without which no voy- 
age of discovery could be made at that time. As was natural, 



12 



ESSENTIALS OF EXITED STATES HISTORY 



Columbus first sought assistance from Portugal. But King 
John — eager discoverer though he was — refused. Genoa 
and Venice had also been invited to help, but neither would 
Spain aids give assistance. Filially Columbus turned to Spain. 
Columbus. Queen Isabella gave him a friendly hearing, but 
was so opposed by her counselors that six or seven years 
went by before she could give him the necessary aid. 

Even then the difficulties of preparation were not ended, 




From a sixteenth century print. 

Columbus, Departing on His First Voyage, Takes Leave of 
the King and Queen. 

for ship owners refused to risk their ships and sailors declined 
to enlist. Finally all obstacles were overcome and on the 
3d of August, 1492, the expedition embarked in three small 
ships, the largest of which was only sixty-five feet long and 
twenty wide. Even Columbus would scarcely have dared 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 13 

to make the voyage in such small boats, had he not supposed 
the distance to be much less than it is. 

14. The Discovery. — Throughout the voyage the weather 
continued fair and the seas calm. The sailors were constantly 
on the lookout and frequently mistook the low-lying clouds 
and fog-banks for the much-desired land. As day by day 
went by and land did not appear, they began to be troubled 
at the distance they were going from Spain. Columbus, 
therefore, thought it necessary to keep them in ignorance of 
the real distance made each day. 

The voyage, on the whole, was uneventful. Finally, on 
the night of the 12th of October, the familiar cry of "Land! 
Land! " once more arose. This time the cry proved true. The 
lookout on board one of the vessels had really spied the faint 
outlines of land in the distance. Daybreak showed a beauti- 
ful island covered with trees and tropical plants. Columbus 
ordered the anchors to be dropped and the boats to be lowered. 
Then he and his company landed, knelt on the shore, set up 
the cross, and took possession in the name of the San 
king and queen of Spain. Columbus called the Salvador, 
island San Salvador in honor of "the blessed Saviour." The 
name has since been changed to Watlings Island. 

For some weeks Columbus voyaged around the adjacent 
islands, seeking for the continent of Asia. So firmly did he 
believe that India was close at hand that he called the islands 
the West Indies, and their inhabitants Indians. But he 
thought that the natives were a stupid race because they 
called all the world an island and did not seem to know what 
a continent was. In spite of all that the Indians told him, 
Columbus decided that he had discovered Asia 
when he found Cuba. He immediately sent a 
messenger, who could speak Arabic, into the interior with a 
letter to the "Great Khan." Though neither the emperor 



14 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



nor the cities of China were reached, Columbus imagined a 
reasonable excuse, and still firm in his belief that he had 
discovered Asia, he set sail for home in January. After a 
stormy voyage he reached Palos, where he was received with 
great honors and rejoicing. 

15. Other Voyages. — Almost immediately after his return 

Columbus made 
preparations for a 
second voyage, and 
this time he had no 
difficulty in getting 
sailors to man the 
ships. "Such was 
the desire for 
travel," said an old- 
time historian, 
"that the men were 
ready to leap into 
the sea, to swim, if 
it had been possi- 

The Map of Da Vinci, 1512-1516. ble, into these new 

After the discovery of South America and Florida. parts " ) and the SOn 

of Columbus wrote, "There is not a man who does not beg 
to be allowed to become a discoverer." 
Columbus made in all four voyages across the Atlantic, and 
^ on the kw4 one touched the shores of South America. He 
died still thinking that it was Asia he had found. In his last 
illness, which had been brought on by worries and disap- 
pointments, he cried, "Why doest thou falter in thy trust in 
God? He gave thee India." 

16. John Cabot. — Columbus wrote a letter giving an ac- 
count of his voyage, which was translated into Latin and 
scattered throughout Europe. When the letter reached 




THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 



15 



England, it was read with great astonishment and the voyage 
was considered an achievement "more divine than human." 
An Italian navigator had made a home for himself in the 
busy seaport town of Bristol, where he was known as John 
Cabot. He had traveled much, had been in the East, and had 
accepted the theory that the earth was round. The story of 
the success of Columbus made him desire to accomplish "some 
notable thing," and to give to the king of England some 
share in the honors that were coming to the kings of Portu- 
gal and Spain through the discoveries made by their subjects. 




"THE SLOANE MANUSCRIPT, 1530 

^AFTER THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC AND CONQUEST OF MEXICO;: 



Henry VII gave him permission " to sail to the east, west, 
or north with five ships carrying the English flag, and to dis- 
cover all islands, countries, regions, or provinces of pagans in 
whatever part," Cabot set sail in May, 1497, and Discovery 
reached land, probably at Cape Breton Island, in of North 
June. He returned to Bristol in August, where America, 
his stories of fish and forests and bears were received with 
such astonishment that he "would have been set down as 
a liar, being foreign-born and poor, had not his crew, who 



16 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



were Bristol men, confirmed everything he said." King 
Henry honored him by giving him ten pounds and a yearly 
pension. 

It has been said that the next year Cabot and his son 
Sebastian set sail again, and that after reaching land they 
coasted along the shore from Labrador to Virginia. Because 
no riches were gained by these voyages, England for many 
years paid little attention to the new lands, but in after 

years it was upon these 
two voyages of the Cabots 
that she rested her claim 
to the ownership of North 
America. 

17. America. — The re- 
ports of Columbus's 
voyages caused great ex- 
citement in Spain. Men 
believed that gold could 
be picked up everywhere 
on the other side of the 
water. Merchants and 
adventurers begged the 
court to give them per- 
mission to fit out vessels 
at their own expense. 
Among the many who 
made voyages across the Atlantic was another Italian, 
Amerigo Vespucci (ves-poot'che). He made four voyages in 
Amerigo all and explored the coast so far to the south 
Vespucci, that he came to the conclusion that the new lands 
were not islands off the coast of Asia but an entirely new 
continent lying between Asia and Europe. 

On his return from one of these voyages he wrote a long 



P?S?S 










i " j^ 




H| 


E-mVh 


*^^M 




ifln i S 



Sebastian Cabot. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 



17 



letter in which he described with great enthusiasm all that 
he had seen. This letter was so interesting that it was pub- 
lished in book form and widely circulated. A man by the 
name of Waldsee- 
mi'iller 1 added it to 
a book on geogra- 
phy that he was 
about to publish. 
In it he said, 
"Another fourth 
part has been dis- 
covered by Amer- 
igo Vespucci . . . 
therefore I do not 
see what is rightly 
to hinder us from 
calling it Amerige 
or America, i.e., the 
land of Americus, 
after its discoverer 
... a man of saga- 
cious mind." The 
name was adopted 
and at first was 
applied only to 
the southern conti- 
nent. By 1541 the 
whole hemisphere, north and south, was known as America. 
There appears to have been no intention on the part of 




1 Martin Waldseemuller (valt'za-miil-ler) was a German. He wrote a 
work called Cosmographice Introductio, to which he added a reprint of 
the four voyages of Vespucci. This work was published in 1507, just a 
year after the death of Columbus. 



18 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Vespucci or Waldseemiiller of robbing Columbus of his right- 
ful honors. Columbus was supposed to be the discoverer of 
the "new islands merely," while Vespucci was the explorer 
of an entirely distinct "new world." 

1 8. The South Sea. — The news that a new world lay in 
the path to India was not at all welcome to Europeans. They 
wanted the wealth of Asia, not the hardships and privations 
of an undeveloped continent. Immediately a search for a 
passage through to Asia began, and this search continued for 
over three hundred years. The first European to see the ocean 
"on the back side of the continent" was a Spanish explorer, 

Vasco Nunez de Balboa (noo'yath da bal-bo'a) 
He crossed the isthmus of Darien in September, 
1513, and walking into the sea, took possession of it in the 
name of the king of Spain. Because it appeared to lie to 
the south, he called it the South Sea. By this name it was 
known for many years. 

19. Magellan. — Because of this discovery, explorers nat- 
urally came to the conclusion that the New World was only 
a narrow strip of land, and their desire to find a passage 
through it increased. In 1519, Fernando Magellan, a Portu- 
guese nobleman in the service of Spain, set out to circum- 
navigate the globe. Though he knew that his ships were 
unseaworthy and his crew mutinous, he told his friends to be 
"of good cheer ... he would do his appointed work all the 
same." 

After reaching the New World he sailed south along the 
shores of South America, and finally entered the strait which 
bears his name. The ships were five weeks going through the 
passage, but as the water continued to be salt, Magellan was 
firmly convinced that the way through the continent had at 
last been found. Even then his men, fearing starvation, de- 
sired to go back, but the brave commander declared that he 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 



19 



would go on "if he had to eat the leather off the ship's 
yards." 

When he reached the "mayne sea, he was so gladde 
thereof that for joy the teares 
fell from his eyes." Because its 
quiet waters were so different 
from those of the stormy Atlantic, 
he named it the Pacific or "peace- 
ful." After great suffering he 
reached a group of islands which 
he called the Ladrones, "the isles 
of robbers." He then proceeded 
to another group and named it 
The World the Philippine Islands 
Circum- after King Philip of 
navigated. g pam> Here Magel l an; 

"our warrior, our light, our com- 
forter, our true guide," was killed in an encounter with the 
natives. His lieutenant, Sebastian del Cano, continued the 
voyage, and on the sixth day of September, 1522, reached 
Spain with one ship and only eighteen men. Thus was 
accomplished the first voyage around the world. 




Magellan. 



SUMMARY 

The majority of Europeans believed that the world was flat 
and that the sea was inhabited by monsters who would destroy 
men and ships. But the capture of Constantinople forced Euro- 
peans to brave the horrors of the deep in order to find a new 
trade route to India. Sailors first sought it around Africa. 

Meanwhile the idea that the earth was round had been 
gaining belief, and a few people thought that India might 
be reached by sailing to the west. Christopher Columbus 
undertook to follow this route and discovered a New World. 

The report of his voyage excited other nations to make 



20 ESSENTIALS OF EXITED STATES HISTORY 

explorations and they also sent expeditions across the Atlantic. 
Columbus died still believing that he had discovered land lying 
off the coast of Asia; but as years passed, people began to 
think that an entirely new continent had been found. This 
was finally proved by the voyage of Magellan, one of whose 
ships sailed around the world. The New World was called 
America in honor of Amerigo Vespucci, who wrote a book de- 
scribing his explorations. 



CHAPTER III 

EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

20. Spanish Settlements. — Spain rapidly pushed forward 
her explorations in America, but confined them chiefly to 
Mexico and the southern continent. 1 The general idea seemed 
to be that nothing of value could be found in the north. "To 
the South," was the cry, "to the South for the great and 
exceeding riches of the Equinoctial; they that seek riches must 
not go into the cold and frozen North." Spain established 
only two settlements within the present limits of the United 
States — at St. Augustine in Florida in 1565, and Santa Fe in 
New Mexico in 1605. The fort at St. Augustine was built 
more to keep the French "heretics" out of America than for 
any other purpose. 

2i. The French. — A decree of Pope Alexander VI had 
divided the New World between Spain and Portugal by an 
imaginary line drawn north and south, from pole to pole. 

1 Mexico was first explored by Hernando Cortez in 1519. With an 
army of four hundred and fifty men he forced his way to the City of 
Mexico, which he captured and made the headquarters for Spanish explo- 
ration and trade in North America. Peru, from which Spain got the most 
of her wealth, was conquered by Pizarro, who entered the capital in 1533. 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



21 



Portugal was given all to the east of this line, and thus came 
into possession of the eastern part of South America, which 
was known as Brazil. Spain received the lands to the west, 
which included the western part of South America and the 
whole of North America. This arrangement was naturally 
unsatisfactory to the other European governments. Francis 
I of France sent to the king of Spain a letter asking by what 
right he and the king of Portugal undertook to divide the 
world between them. Unless they could produce a copy of 
the will by which their father Adam made them the sole heirs, 




The Old Spanish Gate at St. Augustine. 



Francis declared that he was at liberty to seize all he could get. 
He dispatched various exploring expeditions to the New 
World, and in 1562'Gaspardde Coligny (de ko-len'-ye), admiral 
of France, sent out a colony of French Huguenots or Protes- 
tants. They made a settlement on the coast of Carolina and 
named it Port Royal. The colony was unsuccess- French 
ful and soon returned to France. Two years later Settlement 
Coligny sent out another colony under Rene Lau- at Port 
donniere (lo'do'nyar'), who built Fort Caroline near oya ' 
the mouth of the St. Johns River in Florida. When the news 
of this colony reached Spain, Pedro Menendez de Aviles 



22 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

(ma-nan'dath da a've-las') hastened to America to destroy 
the Protestants. He founded St. Augustine, defeated the 
French fleet, captured Fort Caroline, and put to death all the 
French. 

In 1568 this massacre was avenged by Dominique de 
Gourgues (do'me-nSk' da goorg) with terrible slaughter. He 
was aided by the Florida Indians, whose first reverence for the 
Spaniards had changed to savage hate. St. Augustine, how- 
ever, remained in the possession of Spain, and France did not 
attempt to make another settlement in the southern part of 
North America. 

22. The English. — Spain, steadily growing more powerful 
because of the riches she was obtaining from her American 
possessions, was the enemy that England most feared and 
hated. Englishmen began to wonder if there might not be 
wealth for them in the long-neglected land that John Cabot 
had discovered. Hitherto their attempts to gain a footing- 
there had not been successful. George Brete, writing in 1578, 
gave as reasons for this, the lack of liberality among the Eng- 
lish nobility, and want of skill among the English in the art 
of navigation. But he added, "These two causes are now 
in this present age very well reformed." 

Sir William Hawkins, the slave trader, and his more famous 
son, Sir John, had made several trips to the New World. Their 
Hawkins stories of its natural resources had thoroughly 
and aroused the English merchants. In 1576 an ex- 

Frobisher. podition under Martin Frobisher was sent out. He- 
started with three vessels, but one was lost, a second turned 
back, and with only one he reached the northern coast of 
Labrador. All hopes of a profitable southern passage to 
India had, by this time, been abandoned, and the discovery 
of a northern strait, it was believed, was the one thing that 
could bring fame and fortune to an explorer. 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



23 



Frobisher found a stone which he thought contained gold, 
and the expedition returned in great excitement to England. 
The gold did not appear. Two years later Frobisher set out 
again, this time with a colony, to seek for gold. But so 
many of his vessels were lost or crushed by the icebergs that 
he gave up the idea of leaving a colony in Labrador. He 
filled his few remaining vessels with a worthless cargo of 
dirt supposed to contain gold, and went back to England. 

23. Sir Francis Drake. — About this time Sir Francis 
Drake came back from a trip around the world. He 
had been gone about three years, 
had harassed the Spaniards, had 
captured great quantities of 
their treasure, and had been the 
first white man to see the west- 
ern shores of the present United 
States. He spent the winter in 
a harbor on the California coast, 
named that part of the country 
New Albion, and returned to 
England by way of the Cape of 
Good Hope (1579). His voyage 
aroused such enthusiasm at home 
that it was suggested that his vessel, the Golden Hind, should 
be placed on the 'top of St. Paul's cathedral in London, where 
all people could see the bark that had sailed around the 
world. 

24. Gilbert and Raleigh. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert then 
attempted to start an English settlement in Newfoundland. 
But though he discovered what he supposed to be silver, he 
decided that the situation was unsuitable for a colony. He 
loaded his vessels with the supposed ore and set out for home, 
only to lose his ship, his ore, and his life in a fearful storm. 




Sir Francis Drake. 



24 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



This disaster did not prevent his half-brother, Sir AY alter 
Raleigh, from sending out an exploring expedition in April, 
1584. Raleigh was one of the most distinguished and far- 
sighted Englishmen of his time. 
He knew that Spain had done 
nothing with the country lying 
just to the north of Florida, and 
hither he sent his ships, instead 
of to the frozen north. Taking 
possession of this country in the 
name of the queen, the explorers 
returned to England and re- 
ported that the soil was "the 
most plentiful, sweet, fruitful, 
and wholesome of all the world," 
and "the people most gentle, lov- 
ing, and faithful, void of all guile 
and treason." Queen Elizabeth named this region Virginia, 1 
in compliment to herself, the virgin queen. 

25. The First Colony. — In April, L585, Raleigh sent to 
Roanoke Island a colony of one hundred householders with 
Ralph Lane as governor. The charter granted to these colo- 
nists all the rights and privileges of persons native of 
England. 

Raleigh carefully fitted out the expedition with all things 
necessary. Most of the settlers, however, were seekers for 
gold, -and few were of a kind to make useful members of a 
colony in a new country. By their harshness and injustice 
they soon rendered hostile the "gentle, loving, and faithful" 




Sib Walter Raleigh. 



1 The story is told that the Indians were asked the name of their coun- 
try. They misunderstood the question and replied, "Win-gan-da-coa." 
The English for some time called this region by this name, but dropped it 
when, later, they discovered that the word meant " You wear fine clothes." 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



25 




Indians. Since it did not 
furnish gold, life in the 
wilderness held few attrac- 
tions for them. Accord- 
ingly, when Sir Francis 
Drake paid them a visit, 
they were all glad to return 
with him to England. With 
them they carried back two 
products of the new land 
that were unknown in Eng- 
land, the potato and to- 
bacco. Raleigh planted the 
potato on his estates in 
Ireland, where both climate 
and soil were favorable to 
its production, and it be- 
came a staple article of food 
with the Irish people. 1 

26. The Second Colony. 
— Raleigh, undiscouraged 
by the failure of his first 
colony, sent out in 15S7 a 
larger and better equipped 
company of settlers. Some 
of them brought their wives 
with them, some knew how 
to. till the soil; everything 
seemed to point to the suc- 

1 It is said that Raleigh learned from Governor Lane the use of the 
"new weed." A well-known story relates that one day as Raleigh sat in 
his room smoking, a servant came in with a tankard of beer in his hand. 
When he saw smoke issuing from Raleigh's mouth, he thought that his 
master was on fire and poured the contents of the cup over him. 



Stone Marking the Site of Old 
Fort Raleigh. 



INSCRIPTION. 

On this site in July-August, 1585 (O.S.), 
colonists, sent out from England by Sir 
Walter Raleigh, built a fort, called by them 
" The New Fort in Virginia." 

These colonists were the first settlers of 
the English race in America. They returned 
to England in July, 15S6, with Sir Francis 
Drake. 

Near this place was born, on the 18th of 
August, 15S7. Virginia Dare, the first child of 
English parents born in America — daughter 
of Ananias Dare and Eleanor White, his wife, 
members of another band of colonists, sent 
out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1587. 

On Sunday, August 20, 1587, Virginia 
Dare was baptized. Manteo, the friendly 
chief of the Hatteras Indians, had been bap- 
tized on the Sunday preceding. These bap- 
tisms are the first known celebrations of a 
Christian sacrament in the territory of the 
thirteen original United States. 



26 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

cess of the colony. In accordance with the advice of Gover- 
nor Lane, they had intended to settle on the shore of Chesa- 
peake Bay. Calling first at Roanoke Island, however, they 
established themselves there. Governor White soon was 
obliged to go back to England for reinforcements and fresh 
supplies. He promised to return immediately, but England 
was then engaged in a fierce war with Spain, and two years 
went by before White was able to get back to Virginia. 
When at length he arrived, he found the settlement a wilder- 
ness, and no trace of the inhabitants could be discovered. 
Among those lost were his daughter and his tiny grandchild, 
Virginia Dare, the first English child born in America. 

For many years the fate of the settlers remained a mystery. 
It was finally discovered that, despairing of the return of the 
governor, they had moved to Croatoan, the home of some 
friendly Indians. They were adopted as members of the 
tribe and were killed by the tribe's enemies. 

Raleigh had spent so much money on his colonies that he 
was unable to fit out another. He still trusted that he should 
live to see America an English nation. Though he did not 
realize his dream, he did live long enough to see an English 
colony permanently established in Virginia. Of this we shall 
learn in the next chapter. 

SUMMARY 

The Spaniards confined their explorations to Mexico and 
South America, and the Portuguese to Brazil. When the 
French attempted to found a colony in Carolina, Menendez 
built a fort at St. Augustine and massacred the French. 

The English now began to turn their attention to America. 
Martin Frobisher and Sir Humphrey Gilbert started unsuc- 
cessful colonies in Labrador and Newfoundland, and Sir 
Francis Drake harassed the Spaniards and made his famous 
voyage around the world. Sir Walter Raleigh then attempted 
to colonize Virginia and failed. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



27 



CHAPTER IV 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



27. The Two Companies. — In spite of the English failures 
to colonize America, Englishmen more and more turned their 
thoughts towards the possibilities of the new world. By the 
opening of the 
seventeenth cen- 
tury conditions 
favored a fresh 
attempt. England 
had given her old 
enemy a crushing 
blow in the de- 
feat of the Span- 
ish Armada, and 
Spanish attacks 
were no longer to 
be feared, either 
on sea or on land. 

In 1606 certain 
firm and hearty 
lovers of coloniza- 
tion organized into 
two companies and obtained from King James charters 
which gave them the right to colonize Virginia. The 
At that time the whole of the territory in Charter 
North America claimed by Great Britain was of l6 ° 6 - 
called Virginia. To the first, which was known as the 
London Company, because most of its members lived 
in the vicinity of London, was given the territory be- 




GRANTS TO LONDON 

AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES. 

1606 

PLYMOUTH COMPANY |^ 
LONDON COMPANY t^-^j] 



28 ESSENTIALS OF I'XITED STATES HISTORY 

tween the 34th and 38th degrees of latitude, or from Cape 
Fear to the mouth of the Potomac River. The second, or the 
Plymouth Company, whose members were residents of the 
wesl of England, obtained the land between the 41st and 45th 
degrees, or from Long Island to a little north of the present city 
of Halifax. The region between was common property, but 
neither company could make a settlement within a hundred 
miles of the other. The territories were to be a hundred 
miles in width, but a second charter, granted three years 
later, extended the boundaries from sea to sea. No one, 
however, supposed that the distance between seas was more 
than a few hundred miles. 

28. The Purpose. — To find the way to the "back side of 
Virginia," which Sir Francis Drake had seen in 1579, was 
indeed one of the chief reasons for sending out the colonies. 
This is shown by certain instructions given to the Jamestown 
settlers: "You must observe if you can whether the river on 
which you plant doth spring out of the mountains or of lakes. 
If it be out of any lake, the passage to the other sea will be the 
more easy." Another reason of the colonizing scheme was. 
as in the earlier attempts, to find gold which, according to a 
story book of that time, was still believed to be "more plenti- 
full there than copper" (so very common, indeed, that even 
the "dripping pans" were reported to be of "pure gould"). 

The main purpose of the companies, however, lay in the 
fact, which all the most clear-sighted were beginning to realize, 
that English power and English commerce could be extended 
and increased by American colonization. It was felt, too, 
that the colonies would give to the pool' and unfortunate an 
opportunity to make a new start in life. This idea steadily 
grew, as the years went by and men did not find gold in every 
sand bank. Virginia was called the best poor man's country 
in the world, and preachers came to speak of Virginia as the 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 29 

"door which God had opened for England." It was no longer 
difficult to get men to go to America, and this, in spite of the 
fact that all the advantages were for the king and the com- 
pany and not for the colonists. 1 

29. Jamestown. — The first colony of the London Company 
left England on the 19th of December, 1606, in three small 
vessels, the largest of which, the Susan Constant, could carry 
only a hundred tons of freight. The voyage was long and 
stormy, and when the seasick travelers reached land in 
the early spring, they found the trees and bushes green, the 
woods full of flowers, and the birds singing. It seemed to 
them that heaven and earth had never " agreed better to 
frame a place for man's commodious and delightful habita- 
tion." Therefore they named this land Point Comfort. The 
two points at the entrance of Chesapeake Bay they called 
Cape Henry and Cape Charles, for the two sons of the king. 
Proceeding up a fair and broad river, which in honor of the 
king they named the James, they landed May 13, 1607, and 
immediately set up tents and erected booths of branches. 
Thus, in high spirits and with fair expectations, the settle- 
ment of Jamestown began. 

30. The Difficulties. — The joy was short lived. In a few 
weeks serious difficulties arose. The colonists had made a 
mistake in choosing the situation for their settlement. It 
was on a low point almost surrounded by water. As soon 
as the hot summer came, the fumes which rose from the 

1 The king was to receive one fifth of all the gold mined, and one 
fifteenth of the copper. The company had the rest of the profits and the 
entire control of the government. The colonists had few rights, except 
those which Raleigh's charter gave to the settlers at Roanoke Island: 
they and their children were to have all the rights and liberties that would 
have been theirs had they been " abiding and born " in England. Because 
the kings did not keep this promise was one of the chief reasons for the 
controversy between kings and colonists in later years. 



30 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

marshes brought on a serious illness. Before the frosts of 
Death of autumn arrived, men died, sometimes as many 
the Settlers. as four a day, until about one half the colony had 
perished. 

Moreover, the colonists had not been well chosen; most of 
them knew nothing about the cutting down of trees, or the 
digging up of stumps, or the tilling of the soil. "Thirty 
carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, 
masons, and diggers up of tree roots," wrote one of their 
number, would have been worth "more than a thousand" of 
these. Not only did they not know how to work, but they 
did not want to work, and the president of the council and 
most of his assistants were too inefficient to force them. 

In addition to all these troubles, the stock of food ran low 
and, as the Indians would not sell to them, the colonists were 
in serious danger of starvation. Indeed there is no doubt but 
that Jamestown would have shared the fate of the preced- 
John ing colonies, if one of the council, Captain John 

Smith. Smith, had not gained control of the government. 

He compelled the Indians to sell food, and told the men that if 
they did not work they should not eat. As he was a man 
who kept his promises, land was cleared, corn was planted, 
and fortifications were built in spite of grumblings and com- 
plainings and blistered hands. Under Smith's rule some men 
proved more industrious than he had expected. And yet ten 
good workmen, he wrote, would have done more substantial 
work in a day than ten of his men did in a week. 

31. The Starving Time. — For a time affairs at Jamestown 
moved on with some degree of smoothness, though quarrels 
were frequent, Indians were hostile, and gold was not found. 
The next year more colonists came over, and by 1609 there 
were five hundred settlers. But they were mostly adven- 
turers and gold seekers, and after Smith was wounded and 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



31 



obliged to return to England, another starving period came 
on. By the next spring only sixty inhabitants were left, and 
in June they decided to abandon the settlement and return 
to England. As they sailed down the bay "none dropped a 
tear, for none had enjoyed one day of happiness." Before 
they reached the open sea, they met the ships of the new 
governor, Lord Delaware. 
He brought colonists and 
fresh provisions. The de- 
serters returned and a new 
day began for Jamestown. 
32. The Reforms. — Lord 
Delaware served as gover- 
nor of Virginia less than a 
year, yet he remained long 
enough to establish the 
colony permanently. Sir 
Delaware Thomas Dale 
andDale. then became 
governor. He was a stern, 
military ruler, but he 
brought order into the 
colony. He started a new 
settlement at Henrico City, 
which was a more health- 
ful location than Jamestown, and made several reforms that 
were of benefit to company and colonists alike. Up to that 
time the land had been held in common and the settlers took 
little interest in its cultivation. Dale gave to each colonist 
three acres of land and exacted as a yearly payment only six 
bushels of corn for the public granary. The colonists now 
had something of their own to work for and to develop. In 
place of their continual quarrelings, a good-natured rivalry 




Captain John Smith. 

From the original engraung in John Smith's "His- 
tory of New England, Virginia, and the Summer 
Isles," published in 1624. 



32 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



sprang up among them. Crime grew less and less, and all 
fear of another starving period passed away. 

33. Tobacco. — The settlers had not been the only ones 
to suffer discouragement at the condition of affairs in Virginia. 
The members of the London Company had been dissatisfied 
at the returns that came from their expenditures. Lumber 
and sassafras roots hardly had the market value of the gold 




A Virginia Tobacco Field. 

that had been expected. Some of the members had even 
urged the abandonment of the colony; others, however, were 
interested enough to continue the experiment Then, at 
length, an abundant revenue came in from an entirely new 
and unexpected source. 

In 1612, one of the colonists, John Rolfe, 1 began to grow 

1 John Rolfo married Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, the Indian 
chief. She it was who had saved John Smith's life when he had been con- 
demned to death by the Indians, and who afterwards aided the colonists 
in several times of need. After his marriage, Rolfe took his wife to Eng- 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 33 

tobacco. Year by year its cultivation spread until almost 
every other product of the' soil was neglected. Against the 
weed King James expressed himself, declaring smoking to be 
"a custom loathsome to the eyes, hateful to the nose, harmful 
to the brain, dangerous to the lungs." Nevertheless its use 
in England increased with great rapidity, and the product 
found a ready market. In five years, indeed, "the market 
place, streets, and all other spare places in Jamestown were 
planted with tobacco." It almost came to be the money of 
Virginia. One pound of best tobacco was valued at three 
shillings. Fines for misdemeanors were paid in tobacco, and 
every planter was compelled to set aside a certain number 
of pounds towards the minister's salary. 

34. Slavery. — The rapid increase in the production of 
tobacco demanded an increase also in the number of field 
laborers. Englishmen had found the summer sun of Virginia 
too hot for active labor, and the Indians made poor farmers. 
Negroes from Africa had been imported into the West Indies, 
where it had been proved that one negro could do the work 
of four Indians. Therefore, when in August, 1619, a Dutch 
man-of-war brought twenty negroes to Jamestown, no diffi- 
culty was found in selling them to planters. The importation 
of slaves increased year by year until, at the end of one hun- 
dred and fifty years, there were nearly as many blacks as 
whites in Virginia. 

35. The First Assembly. — The same year that brought 
the slaves to Virginia witnessed another event which was 
also to have a lasting influence upon American history. This 
was the calling together by Governor Yeardley of the House 
of Burgesses, the first legislative assembly of representatives 

land, where she was received with great honor. Pocahontas died soon 
after her son was born. He became the ancestor of many of the leading 
families of Virginia. 



34 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of the people ever held in America. Up to this time the colo- 
nists had had no voice in their government. Virginia had 
been ruled by a governor and a council of thirteen, appointed 
in England. The laws had been harsh and calculated to 
benefit the company and the king rather than the people, and 
Virginians considered that they were not given the rights and 
liberties that were due the subjects of the king of England. 
Now, however, the company became more liberal and pro- 
vided that Virginia should henceforth have an assembly with 
power to make such laws as the people should deem necessary 
for the good of the colony. The first assembly of twenty-two 
burgesses, elected by the free inhabitants of the plantations, 
met at Jamestown, July 30, 1619. It passed laws that were 
"well and judiciously framed, which were of the greatest com- 
fort and benefit to the people.'' 

36. Bacon's Rebellion. — Yet all the good which had been 
expected did not come from the new assembly. In 1624 the 
king took the government of Virginia into his own hands, and 
the liberal policy of the London Company came to an end. 
The governors were given greater power and, since many of 
them were men who thought only of the advantages that 
would come to themselves, the colonists suffered many hard- 
ships. By 1676 indignation had risen to such a point that 
under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy young 
planter, the colonists rose in rebellion against the tyranny of 
Governor the governor, Sir William Berkeley. The direct 
Berkeley, reason for their revolt was his refusal to send an 
expedition against the Indians who were plundering and 
killing the inhabitants of the distant plantations. Bacon 
first punished the Indians and then, marching to Jamestown, 
he captured the. town and burned it to the ground in order 
that "the rogues," as it was stated, "should harbor there no 
more." 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 35 

Bacon died a few weeks after the capture of the capital 
and, as the people had no leader, the rebellion came to an end. 
Such was Governor Berkeley's reputation for severity that the 
colonists believed he would hang half the colony. He was, 
however, recalled to England by the king, Charles II, who 
declared of Berkeley that he had "taken away more lives in 
that naked country than I for the murder of my Father." 1 
No reforms were brought about by this rebellion against the 
government of the king, nor was it taken as a warning that 
the inhabitants of Virginia would not forever endure tyranny 
and oppression. 

37. Lord Baltimore. — Nearly fifty years before Bacon's 
rebellion, and while Charles I was still upon the throne, the 
people of Virginia were greatly disturbed by the arrival of a 
visitor. This was George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a favorite 
of the king. He had previously attempted to make a settle- 
ment at Avalon, in Newfoundland, but had failed because 
the winters were so long and severe. He now desired to found 
another colony where the winters were shorter and milder. 
Virginia gave him a cold welcome, first because she feared 
a division of her territory, and second because he was a 
Catholic. No Catholic and, in fact, no one who did not be- 
lieve in the forms and doctrines of the Church of England, 
was tolerated in Virginia. Nevertheless, Lord Baltimore was 
pleased with the country, and soon after his return to Eng- 
land Charles I granted to him a large tract of land on both 
sides of Chesapeake Bay. This was clearly within the ter- 
ritory of Virginia, but the remonstrances of the colony were 

■About thirty years before Bacon's rebellion, England had risen 
against the misrule of Charles I, and had beheaded him. The repub- 
lic or Commonwealth, as it is usually called, lasted for eleven years, 
and then Charles II, the son of the first Charles, was placed upon the 
throne 



36 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



not considered. 1 Calvert called his country Maryland, in 
honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. 

38. St. Marys. — Lord Baltimore died before he had com- 
pleted his plans for a colony. The king, however, transferred 
the charter to his lordship's son, Cecil, who had succeeded to 
his father's estate and title. In 1633 the new Lord Baltimore 
sent his brother Leonard to Maryland with twenty gentle- 
men and two or three hundred laboring men. These colo- 
nists bought, on the shore of 
Chesapeake Bay, an Indian vil- 
lage, the inhabitants of which 
were moving away. They paid 
for the village in steel hatchets, 
hoes, and cloth, and named it 
St. Marys. It was March when 
they arrived, and as the land 
had already been cleared by the 
Indians, the colonists imme- 
diately began their planting. 
The winter, therefore, found 
them well provided with food 

and there never was a starving time in St. Marys. The 
colony prospered, and by 1647 twenty thousand people had 
settled in Maryland. 

39. Government. — Maryland was known as ;i proprietary 
colony: that is, it had been given by the king to a proprietor, 
bind Baltimore, who had entire control of its territory and 
all the revenue coming therefrom. In return for his gift the 

1 Soon after the arrival of the Maryland colonists, a controversy arose 
with Virginia over the ownership of Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay. 
The island had been settled by William Clayborne, a Virginian, hut was 
included in the grant to Baltimore. Clayborne attempted to hold it by 

force hut was driven out by the Marylanders. The dispute was not 
settled until 177<>. when Maryland came into full possession. 




From a medal of 1632 
Cecil Calvert, Second Lord 
Baltimore. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



37 




A Baltimore Shilling. 



king asked two Indian arrows, which were to be delivered 
yearly on Tuesday of Easter week, and a fifth of all the gold 
and silver. The arrows were faithfully presented every year, 
but Maryland never pro- 
duced enough gold and 
silver to fill the king's 
purse once. In Maryland, 
Calvert had powers al- 
most equal to a king. 
Fortunately for the colony 
he ruled with justice and 
wisdom. The colonists were allowed great freedom, and 
taxes could only be levied by an assembly elected by the 
people. 

40. Religious Toleration. — Maryland was founded first 
as a business venture and second as a refuge for Roman 
Catholics, who were at the time greatly oppressed in Eng- 
land. Though there was no section of the charter which 
absolutely granted religious freedom, every settler was allowed 
to hold any religious faith he pleased, provided only he be- 
lieved in Jesus Christ and respected the creeds of others. 
Such freedom in religious matters was not at that time granted 
anywhere else except in Holland, and Maryland came to be 
known as "the land of the sanctuary." As his seal upon 
this spirit of religious liberty, Lord Baltimore, in April, 1649, 
framed the famous Toleration Act, which "ordered and 
enacted . . . that noe person or persons in this Province . . . 
professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth 
bee any waies troubled ... in respect to his or her re- 
ligion." Later, when the colony was taken from the Cal- 
verts, this freedom came to an end. Taxes were levied for 
the support of the English church, and Catholics were 
oppressed. 



38 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



41. The Carolinas. — Carolana or Carolina, 1 as the region 
south of Virginia was called, extended to the boundaries of 
Spanish Florida. It had first been settled by the French 




The Southern Colonies. 

Huguenots and afterwards by Raleigh's two colonies. Each 
of these attempted settlements, as we have seen, had failed. 
Early Toward the end of the seventeenth century, how- 

Settlers, ever, English colonists began to emigrate to Caro- 
lina. The first settlement, started in 1053 by a company of 

1 This region had been named Carolana by the Huguenots, in honor of 
the French king, Charles IX. Later, at the time of its permanent settle- 
ment, the name was retained as a compliment to Charles II of England. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 39 

non-conformists from Virginia, was known as the Albemarle 
colony. The second, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, 
was begun by a company of New Englanclers. These latter 
settlers were dissatisfied with the country and abandoned the 
settlement. Later, some other colonists came from the Bar- 
badoes and settled at the same place. The district was 
thenceforth called Clarendon. In 1670 still another settle- 
ment was made at Charles Town at the junction of the Ashley 
and the Cooper rivers. 

42. North and South Carolina. — In 1663 King Charles 
gave the whole of this district to eight proprietors. They 
had almost absolute power over it, but as they offered liberal 
terms to colonists, the southern portion was rapidly settled 
by a thrifty class of people. In the northern part, however, 
conditions were not so prosperous. North Carolina was 
known as the "rogues harbor," and was the refuge of all 
sorts of people who could not live elsewhere. In fact, exemp- 
tion from arrests, from investigation of the past records, and 
a year's freedom from taxation were granted to all newcomers. 
Therefore the northern section of Carolina was turbulent and 
disorderly. The colonists had little regard for law and order: 
they were without lawyers, regular physicians, and even, for 
many years, without a clergyman. 

In 1729 the colony was divided into North and South 

Carolina, and thereafter had separate governments. The caro- 

South Carolina became one of the richest and most linas be_ 
. . come 

influential of the English colonies, while North Separate 

Carolina was for a long time of little importance. Colonies. 

43. Agriculture. — Near the close of the seventeenth 
century, a ship from Madagascar put into Charleston harbor. 
The cook had some rice among his stores of provisions which 
he gave to one of the settlers, who planted it in his garden. 
So flourishing was the growth from this small quantity, that 



40 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



the extensive culture of rice was undertaken in the swamps 
of South Carolina. In less than fifty years the rice crop 
Rice and yielded an annual income of £200,000. The soil 
Cotton. an( l climate were also found to favor the culture 
of indigo, and next to rice this became the principal product 
of Carolina. Cotton was also raised, and pitch and tar were 
obtained from the forests in large quantities. Charleston 

became a commercial center 
and two or three hundred 
ships annually went thence to 
Europe. 

44. James Edward Ogle- 
thorpe. — According to Eng- 
lish law, during the eighteenth 
century, a man owing money 
which he could not pay was 
condemned to imprisonment 
until such time as his debt 
should be paid. Prisons af- 
forded little opportunity for 
earning money ; therefore 
many debtors lingered in 
prison for years and often- 
times for life. And when, in- 
deed, they were released, it was difficult for them to find work, 
and their condition and that of their families was very lit- 
tle improved. James Edward Oglethorpe (o'g'l-thorp), while 
serving as a member of a committee to investigate debtors' 
prisons, was much affected by the miseries which he found 
there. He therefore conceived the plan of founding a colony 
in America where the most worthy debtors could begin life 
again. He formed a company, solicited subscriptions, and 
obtained a grant of territory between the Savannah and the 




James Oglethorpe. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 41 

Altamaha rivers. It was wholly a benevolent undertaking; 
the trustees desired no income from the colony The Georgia 
and did not reserve any of the land for them- Charter, 
selves. The province of Georgia was to be held "in trust for 
the poor," and the motto on its seal was " not for themselves, 
but for others." 

45. Georgia. — In January, 1733, the first company of 
colonists, led by Oglethorpe himself, arrived in America, 
and made a settlement at Savannah. "His colony will suc- 
ceed," said Governor Johnson of South Carolina, "for he 
nobly devotes all his powers to serve the poor and rescue 
them from their wretchedness." Fifty acres of land were 
allotted to each settler who could not pay the expenses of 
his journey, and five hundred to those who paid. The 
land was granted for life, provided the tenant improved 
and cultivated it, and there was to be no charge of rent for 
ten years. Oglethorpe directed that every settler should set 
out mulberry trees, and he hoped that thereby silk could be 
produced in quantities large enough to give the colonists an 
income and save England the necessity of buying it from 
foreign countries. The laws of the colony forbade the impor- 
tation of spirits, and inasmuch as Georgia was to be an 
"asylum for the distressed," and "slaves starve the poor 
laborer," the keeping of slaves was not allowed. Moreover, 
Oglethorpe granted freedom to all religious beliefs, except to 
Roman Catholicism, and many persons of persecuted sects 
found refuge in Georgia. They came — Jews, Swiss, Scotch 
Highlanders, and Salzburgers and Moravians from Georgia 
Germany. The colony, however, did not fulfill all R c y ° a 7 es 
of Oglethorpe's hopes, and for many years it did Province, 
not prosper. The warm climate was trying to the colonists. 
Only the Germans wore able to keep their vigor. Accordingly, 
in 1752, the trustees turned over the province to the king. 



42 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

SUMMARY 

The English king granted land in America to the London 
and the Plymouth companies. The London company sent 
out the first colony, which settled at Jamestown in 1607, and 
which, in spite of discouragements, endured until success and 
prosperity arrived. 

Tobacco, which was first grown as an experiment, soon 
found a ready market in England and became a source of 
large revenue. A demand for laborers was supplied by negro 
slaves from Africa. 

In 1619 the first representative assembly on American soil 
was held. The settlers hoped that this would remedy all their 
evils, but the colony later passed into the hands of the king, 
and suffered from the oppression of the governors. As time 
went on, one of the governors was so tyrannical that the peo- 
ple rose in rebellion. But their leader died, the rebellion was 
put down, and no especial benefit was accomplished. 

Virginia was in course of time disturbed by the king's grant 
of a portion of her territory to Lord Baltimore. This grant 
resulted in the founding of the Maryland colony. The first 
settlement in Maryland was made at St. Marys. The colony 
grew rapidly under Baltimore's kindly rule. Religious free- 
dom was granted to all who believed in Christ. 

Virginia also acquired neighbors on the south, in the terri- 
tory of Carolina. At first this whole region was one colony, 
but in 1729 it was divided into North and South Carolina. 

Georgia was founded by Oglethorpe as an asylum for the 
poor debtors of England. The first settlement of this colony 
was made at Savannah. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



43 



CHAPTER V 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



46. The Separatists. — The sixteenth century was a period 
of religious unrest in England as well as on the continent. 
A great many people were dissatisfied with the pomp and 
show of the Established Church and desired to "purify" it 
of what they considered its evils. One class thought that 
they could best improve the church by remaining within it 
though without conforming to 
all its rites and ceremonies. 
These reformers, non-conform- 
ists, as they were called, were 
known as Puritans. Then there 
was another class of dissenters 
who did not retain their mem- 
bership in the Church of England. 
They formed separate organiza- 
tions which had no bishops nor 
appointed clergy and which left 
out of their service all forms and 
ceremonies. These were called 
Separatists, or Independents. 

At the time of this division 
in the church it was unlawful 
for any one to hold opinions on religious matters not in accord 
with the accepted beliefs of the religion established by the 
government of England. In fact, religious liberty was a term 
that had almost no meaning three hundred years ago. King 
James declared, "I will make them conform or I will harry 
them out of the kingdom." Puritans as well as Separatists 
were fined and imprisoned, and suffered all sorts of indig- 




0m 



A Puritan Minister. 



44 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

nities because they would not conform. Hut the Separatists 
were more severely punished because they carried their dis- 
sent to greater lengths. To escape persecution many fled to 
Holland, the only country in Europe which permitted liberty 
of conscience in religious matters, and which was therefore 
called by the other nations "a common harbour of all here- 
sies" and "a cage of unclean birds." 

47. The Pilgrims in Holland. — In the little village of 
Scrooby, situated in Nottinghamshire on the main road from 
London to the north, lived a congregation of Separatists. 
They were accustomed to hold their meetings in the manor 
house, where lived William Brewster, the postmaster. Hecause 
of their religion " they could not long continue in any peacable 
condition, but were hunted and persecuted on every side. 
Some were taken and clapt up in prison, others had their 
houses beset and watched night and day; . . . and the most 
were fain to fly and leave their houses and habitations and 
the means of their livelihood." After several trials and much 
suffering they succeeded in reaching Amsterdam, where a 
number of English fugitives had already assembled before 
them. The next year they removed to Leyden, where they 
found homes and employment. .More and more Pilgrims 
continued to arrive until, within a few years, their number 
had increased to a thousand. 

48. The Removal to America. — At Leyden the Pilgrims 
lived happily many years. The Dutch so highly respected 
them that they would trust even the poorest "in any reason- 
able matter when they wanted money, because they had found 
by experience how careful they were to keep their word, and 
saw them so painful and diligent in their calling." 

Yet the Pilgrims were not wholly satisfied with their life in 
Holland. As their children grew up, they saw them take ser- 
vice in the Dutch army or navy or marry into Dutch families. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 45 

It continually became harder and harder for them to retain 
their English speech and customs. They finally determined 
to search for a place where it would be possible for their chil- 
dren to remain English and where they might la} r the foun- 
dations of a new church. America seemed to offer the 
advantages which they desired, and through the good offices 
of friends in England a section of land was obtained for them 
on the banks of the Delaware River within the territory of the 
London Company. 

49. The Voyage. — It was decided that only the strongest 
of the Pilgrims should go first to the New World, and that the 
majority, with their pastor, John Robinson, should remain 
in Leyden until the venture should prove a success. The 
colonists led by William Brewster left the Old World in two 
ships, the Mayflower and Speedwell, in the sum- The 

mer of 1620. After sailing three hundred miles Mayflower, 
beyond Land's End, the master of the Speedivell claimed 
that his vessel was leaking and unseaworthy. She was 
obliged to put back to Plymouth, where she was abandoned. 
As many of her passengers as possible were transferred to 
the Mayflower, which, with one hundred and two colonists, 
started again, alone. 

The voyage was long and stormy and land was not reached 
until the 9th of November ; then instead of the green shores of 
the Delaware which the voyagers had expected, they saw the 
bleak and sandy end of Cape Cod. The captain of the May- 
flower claimed that it was unwise to sail farther, and after a 
month spent in exploring the country, they finally landed 
at Plymouth on the 21st of December. 

50. The Mayflower Compact. — The patent that the Pil- 
grims had received had been granted by the London Company 
and would be of no value in the territory of the Plymouth 
Company to which they had come. Therefore, as they were 



46 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

without laws or form of government, before landing they 
met in the cabin of the Mayflower and drew up a compact, in 
which they solemnly, "in the presence of God and of one 
another," promised to obey the laws that should be framed 
for the government of the colony. Forty-one men signed 
their names to the compact. They then elected John Carver 
as their first governor. 

51. The First Winter. — The long voyage had weakened 




From the painting by Lucey. 

The Landing of the Pilgrims. 

many of the Pilgrims and they were ill-prepared to stand the 
hardships of a cold New England winter. Though the season 
was unusually mild, one half of their number died, among 
them Governor Carver. Yet, when the Mayflower returned 
in the spring, not one of the colonists went back with her. 
"It is not with us as with men whom small things discourage 
or small discontentments cause to wish themselves at home 
again," said their minister, William Brewster. 

The Plymouth colonists were fortunate in that they had 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 47 

no conflict with the Indians. They early made friends with 
Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoags, and he aided 
them in many ways. The Indians showed the Pilgrims how 
to plant the Indian corn, and before another winter came, 
they had so bountiful a harvest that Governor Bradford 
appointed a day of thanksgiving to God who had been "with 
them in all their ways." This was the first Thanksgiving 
Day. 

52. The Salem Settlement. — "Out of small beginnings 
great things have been produced; and as one small candle 
may light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shone to 
many." Thus wrote Governor Bradford of the founding of 
Plymouth, and the history of Massachusetts Bay proves his 
words. While the Plymouth colony was slowly growing, 
the Puritans in England were finding life there more and 
more difficult. Some of the more clear-sighted leaders, realiz- 
ing that an open conflict with the king must soon come, and 
with the example of the Pilgrims before them, concluded 
that it might be possible to plant a Puritan colony in America. 

In 1628 six prominent Puritans obtained from the Ply- 
mouth Company a grant of land which extended from three 
miles south of the source of the Charles to three miles north of 
the Merrimac. In September a colony of sixty persons, led 
by John Endicott, arrived at Naumkeag. A small 
company of fishermen who had found Cape Ann 
too rocky for a successful settlement were already stationed 
there. They and the newcomers came to an agreeable 
understanding and changed the name of the place to Salem, 
a Hebrew word meaning peace. The next year the members 
of the colony were increased by the arrival of a large com- 
pany of Puritans, well supplied with cattle, tools, and am- 
munition. 

Francis Higginson, the minister, a leader of this fresh band 



48 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




of immigrants, had said, as the shores of England grew dim in 
the distance, "We will not say as the Separatists were wont 
to say at their leaving of England, 'Farewell, Babylon,' but 
we will say ' Farewell, dear England, farewell, the Church of 
God in England, and all the Christian friends there.' We 
do not go to New England as Separatists from the Church 

of England, but ... to 
propagate the gospel in 
America." Yet in spite 
of this declaration, soon 
after their arrival, Hig- 
ginson and his followers 
organized a church 1 in 
Salem which to all in- 
tents and purposes was as 
truly a Separatist church 
as the one in Plymouth, 
and when later some 
among the band attempted to organize another church like 
that of the Church of England, they were sent home. John 
Skelton was ordained as minister of the Salem church and 
Francis Iligginson as teacher. 

53. Boston. — The charter granted to the Massachusetts 
Bay Company by the king did not designate any special 
place for holding the meetings of the corporation. The 
company therefore decided to transfer the government of 
the plantation to those emigrating and to move their officers 
and the charter itself from England to America. John 
Winthrop, a wealthy Puritan of Suffolk, was elected 
governor of the colony. Under his guidance a large 
company was brought together, and setting sail, arrived in 
Salem in the summer of 1630. Some of the company re- 
1 The church building, erected in 1634, is still standing in Salem. 



The First Church at Salem. 



Winthrop. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



49 



mained there, others founded Charlestown, still others started 
the towns of Dorchester, Newtown, and Watertown. The 
majority, with the governor, settled at Shawmut, which was 
renamed Boston in memory of Boston, England, whence 
many of the Puritans had come. 

54. The Government of the Colony. — In a short space of 
time the region around Massachusetts Bay possessed more 
inhabitants than Plymouth. Settlers continued to come in 
large numbers, until in 1650 there were about twenty thou- 
sand people in Massachusetts. 
Many of these colonists possessed 
considerable property and were 
men of great influence. 

At first the colony was gov- 
erned by the governor and his 
assistants. When, however, a tax 
was levied for the purpose of 
building a fort at Newtown, the 
inhabitants of Watertown de- 
clared that they were English 
freemen and alone had the power 
to levy taxes. As a result of this 
protest, a change was made in the 
government and thereafter the freemen of each settlement 
elected representatives to the General Court. R ep resent- 
These representatives met in Boston and there ative Gov- 
transacted the business of the colony. Local ernment. 
affairs were managed in a general assembly or town meet- 
ing, by the freemen of each town. A freeman (or voter) was 
any male member of the colony who was twenty-one years old 
and a member of the Puritan church. 

55. Roger Williams. — Though the Puritans had come to 
America "to enjoy the liberties of the gospel in purity and 




Governor Winthrop. 



50 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



peace," they were not more willing than were the Church of 
England settlers of Virginia to tolerate in the colony people 
who did not agree with their beliefs. Naturally, among so 
large a number of people, there were those who did not agree. 
Roger Williams, a young clergyman, arrived in Boston in 
1631. He settled in Salem, was made pastor of the church, 
and was justly popular with the people. He soon, however, 




The New England Colonies. 

came into conflict with the officers of the province because of 
his views on civil and religious matters. He claimed that the 
land which the colonists occupied belonged to the Indians and 
that the king's grant had no value unless supported by a 
purchase of the land from its rightful owners. He declared 
that the power of the magistrates extended only to the 
bodies and outward estate of man, not to the mind and con- 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 51 

science. Therefore, he argued, every man should be allowed 
to worship as his own conscience dictated. 

The Puritans were not ready to admit that a complete 
separation of church and state was wise or even possible. 
They feared that the whole country would "be set on fire by 
the rapid motion of a windmill in the head of one particular 
man," and ordered Williams to leave the country in a ship 
that was returning to England. Williams fled into the 
wilderness and spent the winter among the Indians. Then, 
at the suggestion of Governor Winthrop, he bought of the 
Indians a tract of land bordering upon Narragansett Bay and 
started a new colony. He named his settlement Providence 
and made it "a shelter for persons distressed for conscience." 

56. Rhode Island. — About this time Mrs. Anne Hutchin- 
son was banished from Massachusetts because she held 
religious beliefs that were disapproved by the magistrates. 
She and some of her followers settled on the island of Rhode 
Island in Narragansett Bay, where they founded the towns 
of Newport and Portsmouth. These settlers were on friendly 
terms with the Providence people, and in 1644 Roger Williams 
obtained a charter which united the colonies of Rhode Island 
and Providence. This charter, in 1663, was superseded by 
another, which granted complete civil and religious liberty. 

57. Connecticut. — In 1635 and 1636 a large number of 
the inhabitants of Dorchester, Newtown, and Watertown, led 
by the Rev. Thomas Hooker, moved to the valley of the 
Connecticut River and began the settlements of Hartford, 
Weathersfield, and Windsor. Their reasons for removal were 
several: namely, that the settlements at the Bay were too 
crowded, that their cattle had too little pasture room, and 
that the law compelling non-church members to protect the 
colony and to obey its laws, but giving them no voice in the 
government or election of officers, was not just. 



52 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



The now towns remained for a time within the jurisdiction 
of Massachusetts Bay, but in January, 1639, all the freemen 
met in Hartford and adopted the first written constitution 
The First known to history. In it there was no mention of 
Constitu- the authority of the king. The people were made 
tlon - the foundation of all authority and every citizen 

who would take the oath of fidelity was accounted a freeman. 
This Connecticut constitution marked the beginning of 
American democracy. 

58. New Haven. — The fertility of the Connecticut Valley 




Saybkook Fort in 1636. 

attracted other settlers, and towns were started at various 
points along the coast and in the interior. A settlement at 
Saybrook was begun as early as 1635. New Haven 1 was 
begun in 1638 by the Rev. John Davenport and Theophilus 
Eaton, the one a minister, the other a merchant of London; 
and the towns of Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were settled 
at about the same time. These four towns were known as 

1 The site of New Haven was bought of the Indians for "twelve coats, 
twelve alchymy spoons, twelve hatchets, twelve hoes, two dozen knives, 
twelve poringers, and four cases of French knives and scissors." 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 53 

the New Haven Colony, and their government was similar to 
that of Massachusetts Bay. In 1665 the two colonies of New 
Haven and Connecticut were united and were thenceforth 
known as Connecticut. 

59. New Hampshire and Maine. — New Hampshire was first 
colonized under a grant made to Ferdinando Gorges and John 
Mason, and originally included a portion of the present state 
of Maine. Settlements were made at Dover and Portsmouth 
as early as 1623 and at Pemaquid and York two or three 
years later. Exeter and Hampton were founded by colonists 
from Massachusetts. From 1643 until 1679 New Hampshire 
formed a part of Massachusetts. At the latter date the por- 
tion west of the Piscataqua River became a royal province, 
but the eastern part, known as Maine, remained under the 
jurisdiction of Massachusetts until 1820. 

60. The United Colonies of New England. — The year 1643 
saw the first union of the English colonies. In that year the 
four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, 
and Connecticut formed a confederacy as a protection against 
the Indians and against the Dutch, who laid claim to much of 
the present state of Connecticut. Two commissioners were 
elected from each colony, who took charge of the militia and 
had power to provide for the common defense and welfare of 
the four colonies. Each colony, however, had complete con- 
trol of its own internal affairs. 

The English government, afraid that the colonies were 
planning to throw off their dependence upon the home country, 
protested against the union. Governor Winslow of Plymouth, 
however, defended it, declaring, "If we in America should 
forbear to unite for offense and defense against a common 
enemy till we have leave from England, our throats might all 
be cut before the messenger would be half seas through." 
The union thus formed lasted forty years and was especially 




54 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

useful in bringing into closer sympathy the people of the 
various New England colonics. 

61. Royal Provinces. — Through all the early years of 

New England, the New England 

*t§&zM.©% colonists had almost complete 

/oll&^iv^} control of their government. 

!^^nn % ,tej The Navigation Acts, passed 

i% \^S^y ^ tlie English Parliament, re- 



^Mxr^'" ^ tne English Parliament, re- 

""""""""* stricted their commerce, but the 

A Pine-Tree Shilling. . . . ,. . 

people elected their governors 

and legislatures, made their laws, levied their taxes, and even 

coined their money. 1 

In 1684, however, the king took away the charter from 
Massachusetts and made it a royal province. Three years 
later the charters of Rhode Island and of Connecticut were 
also withdrawn. Sir Edmund Andros was ap- 
pointed governor of all the country from Acadia to 
the Delaware River. Under his rule the colonies were de- 
prived of so many of their rights and liberties that Massachu- 
setts declared that no privilege was left them but to be sold as 
slaves. "The governor invaded liberty and property after 
such a manner," wrote Increase Mather, "as no man could 
say anything was his own." 

In 1689, when a new king came to the English throne, the 
people of Boston seized and imprisoned the governor and sent 
him out of the colony. 2 Then a new charter was granted to 

1 One piece of money was known as the pine-tree shilling. It had Mas- 
sachusetts printed on one side and New England on the other. The pine 
tree was not unmistakably a pine tree. Therefore, when the king objected 
that there was not shown on the coin any evidence of the colony's alle- 
giance to England, a friend of the colonies assured his Majesty that the 
tree on the coin represented the oak in which Charles II had hidden after 
the battle of Worcester. 

2 Soon after Andros was imprisoned by the people of Boston, the mi- 
litia of New York arose against Lieutenant-Governo- Nicholson and seized 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 55 

Massachusetts, which restored most of her privileges, but 
reserved to the king the right to appoint the governor. In 
1691 Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay Colonies were 
united. Rhode Island and Connecticut 1 continued to govern 
themselves in accordance with their old charters. 

SUMMARY 

Dissatisfaction with the religious forms of the Established 
Church brought about the next English emigration. In 1620 
a company of Pilgrims, who had found a refuge from persecu- 
tion in Holland, started the settlement of Plymouth. Eight 
years later some Puritans arrived at Salem, and two years 
afterwards a large colony laid the foundations of Boston and 
the surrounding towns. 

The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay could not agree upon 
religious matters, and those who were dissatisfied moved to 
Providence and the Connecticut Valley, where settlements were 
made which granted greater religious freedom. 

In spite of their differences, there was considerable sym- 
pathy between the colonies. At one time four of them formed 
a union as a protection against the Indians. For many years 
the New England colonies practically governed themselves. 
Parliament began to fear that they were becoming too inde- 
pendent, and deprived them of many of their rights and 
privileges. 

the government for William and Mary, the new English rulers. A com- 
mittee of safety was elected and Jacob Leisler was placed at its head. 
For over a year he governed the colony and then surrendered to the new 
governor appointed by the king. Leisler was tried for high treason, con- 
demned, and hanged. 

1 When Andros went to Hartford to demand the Connecticut charter, 
the document was brought, but the discussion continued until evening, 
when the lights suddenly went out and left the room in total darkness. 
The candles were relighted, but the charter could not be found. Tradition 
says that it was hidden in the hollow of an oak tree, which thenceforth 
went by the name of the Charter Oak. This tree was blown down in 
a gale in 1S56. It was estimated that it was at that time about one 
thousand years old. 



56 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



CHAPTER VI 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

62. Henry Hudson. — In the first half of the seventeenth 
centmf the famous English navigator, Henry Hudson, made 
two voyages in search of a northern passage to India. He had 
carefully explored Greenland and the waters north of Europe 
as far as Nova Zembla, and had gone nearer to the north 
pole than any other navigator of that time. He desired to 

make another exploration, 
but the English merchants 
who employed him were 
unwilling to spend more 
money on what appeared 
a useless undertaking. He 
therefore offered his ser- 
vices to the Dutch East 
India Company and they 
were accepted. 1 A ship of 
eighty tons, called the Half 
Moon, was fitted out, and 
on the 4th of April, 1609, 
Hudson set sail from the 
Zuyder Zee. 
He first followed his old 
track to the north, but being stopped by the ice he turned 
his ship towards America, in the hope of finding a passage 
to the Pacific somewhere to the north of Chesapeake Bay. 
He landed at the mouth of the Penobscot River, cut down 
a pine tree for a new mainmast, and carefully explored the 

»The Dutch East India Company was a great organization designed to 
carry on trade with India and China. 




Henry Hudson. 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 57 

coast to the south. Finally he entered the present harbor 
of New York and went up the river now known by Discovery 
his name, until the waters measured only seven of Hudson 
feet in depth. There he turned his prow down the Rlver - 
river and directed his course homeward, since the autumn was 
too far advanced for further explorations to the north. 1 

63. The Dutch Settlements. — Hudson, in his report to the 
East India Company, said that the country .he had visited 
was as fair a land as could be trodden by the foot of man ; that 
it was the finest for cultivation that he had ever seen; that it 
was well covered with great trees of every description, and 
that it abounded in fur-bearing animals. Dutch merchants 
soon discovered that the fur trade was profitable, and in 1613 
built a few log houses on Manhattan Island and the next year 
a fort near the present city of Albany. About the same time, 
Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, made a voyage to Man- 
hattan Bay, where he secured a rich cargo of furs, which he 
carried to Amsterdam. Block also sailed along the New 
England coast and gave names to two islands, Block Island 
and Rhode Island. 

After a time the States General of Holland made a formal 
grant of territory to settlers. Later the government turned 
over to the United Netherland Company the land from 

1 The English regretted that they had allowed so skillful a navigator as 
Hudson to sail in the service of another nation, and when he touched at 
an English port on'his return voyage, they would not allow him to proceed 
to Holland. The next year he again set sail in a ship fitted out by 
English merchants. He reached the great sea now known as Hudson's 
Bay, and at its southern end he spent the winter. In the spring, when he 
made known his determination to push his discoveries farther, the crew 
mutinied. They placed Hudson, his son, and several of the crew who were 
sick, in an open boat, cut it loose, and turned their ship towards home. 
When they reached England, they were seized and imprisoned, and a vessel 
hurried to America to search for Hudson. No trace of the bold navigator 
or of his boat was ever found. 



58 



ESSENTIALS OF IMTKI) STATES HISToUY 



the 45th parallel to the mouth of the Delaware, extend- 
United m § to ^ 1C eas ^ as ^ ar as ^ape Cod. This whole 
Netheriand region was within the territory granted by Eng- 
Company. \ an( \ [ t ne London and Plymouth companies. Of 
course the English made complaints, hut they were disre- 
garded. Dutch colonists were sent over in 1623, and three 
years later, Peter Minuit, the governor of the colony, bought 
the island of Manhattan from the Indians for sixly guilders. 1 

The settlement became 
known as New Amsterdam, 
the fort farther up the river 
as Fort Nassau, and the 
colony as New Netheriand. 
64. Peter Stuyvesant. - 
New Netheriand grew 
slowly. It was simply a 
trading colony. Religious 
liberty was granted, but 
the people had no voice in 
the government. When 
Peter Stuyvesant, their 
most famous governor, ar- 
rived in 1()47, he declared, 
" I shall govern you as a 
father his children, for the advantage of the chartered West 
India Company." 2 

















^ ^ 






-tJ3 &£% 






■■■■\ 





Peter Stuyvesant 



' The present value of a guilder in American money is about forty cents. 
This would mean that Manhattan was bought for twenty-tour dollars. 
But as the purchasing value in Minuit s day was about five times what it 
now is, it is often said that he paid one hundred and twenty dollars for 
the whole of Manhattan. 

= The West India Company was chartered by the Dutch government in 
1621. It had control of all Dutch navigation and trade on the coast of 
America as well as of Africa. 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



59 



The company could not have found a better man to guard 
its interests than Stuyvesant, who was absolutely trust- 
worthy and honest. On the other hand, he was obstinate and 
hot-tempered and was continually quarreling with Discontent 
the colonists, who desired more rights and greater of the 
freedom. The company upheld the governor in Colonists - 
his opposition to the demands of the people and once wrote 
him that he must not let them indulge in their visionary 
dreams. The colonists compared their condition with that 
of their neighbors, the New England colonists, and became 
more and more dissatisfied and discontented. 

65. New York. — Consequently, when in 1664 the English 




The Dutch Staadt Huys (State House) at New York. 

determined to take possession of New Netherlands many in 
New Amsterdam sided with the English. "The company/' 
wrote Stuyvesant, "is cursed and scolded; the inhabitants de- 
clare that the Dutch never had a right to the country." The 
governor determined to oppose the English fleet, but the people 
felt that resistance was madness and in a written remonstrance 
urged him to surrender. Finally, Stuyvesant gave orders for 
the white flag to be raised, saying. "Well, let it be so. I had 
rather be carried to my grave." Thus, without bloodshed, 
the English took possession of New Netherland. Later the 
Dutch regained control of the province, but only for a few 



60 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

months. New Netherland was given by King Charles to his 
brother .lames, Duke of York, and the name was changed 
to New York. Fort Nassau was renamed Albany. 

66. Delaware. — The Dutch made their first settlements 
in Delaware as early as 1630. Eight years later, a company 
of Swedes commanded by Peter Minuit, who had once been 
The governor of New Netherland, bought of the Indians 
Swedes. a tract of land in the vicinity of Wilmington. They 
called their colony New Sweden, and their fort Christiana, in 
honor of the queen. It was hoped that New Sweden would 
be a refuge to "all oppressed Christendom" and a blessing to 
"the common man." Lord Baltimore claimed New Sweden 
as a part of Maryland, and the Dutch in New Netherland 
maintained that it belonged to them. Minuit paid no atten- 
tion to the remonstrances of either colony. In 1655, how- 
ever, Governor Stuyvesant made an expedition against New 
Sweden and captured it. The colony passed, with New 
Netherland, under the control of England. 

67. New Jersey. — New Jersey, like Delaware, was origi- 
nally settled by the Dutch. The Swedes also made settle- 
ments north of the Delaware River and a company of Puritans 
migrated there from New England. The region, however, 
was generally considered a part of the Dutch colony. After 
the English came into possession of New Netherland, the 
Duke of York gave the country lying to the south of New 
York and to the east of the Delaware to Sir George Carteret 
and Lord Berkeley. Carteret had been at one time governor 
of the isle of Jersey, and owing to this fact the colony re- 
ceived its name New Jersey. Lord Berkeley sold his share 
to two Quakers and the colony was then divided into East 
and West Jersey. The two portions were not united until 
1702, when New Jersey became a royal province. 

68. The Quakers. — George Fox, an English preacher, 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



61 



was the founder of a religious sect which came to -be known 
as the society of Friends or Quakers. This last name was 
given them by Justice Bennett, whom Fox, in the course of 
his trial before him, bade "tremble at the word of the Lord." 
The Quakers held 
many peculiar be- 
liefs which caused 
them to be severely 
persecuted. They 
refused to serve in 
the army or navy, 
would not pay 
tithes, and main- 
tained that every 
man was the equal 
of every other 
man. In consid- 
eration of this lat- 
ter assertion they 
kept on their hats 
in the presence of 
persons in author- 
ity, not even ex- 
cepting the king. 
They held the doc- 
trine that each 
man's life should 
be guided by an 
inner light. A few of these Friends were led into many ex- 
travagant and foolish deeds. The majority, however, were 
sincere, quiet, and peace-loving people, who could not be won 
"with gifts, honors, offices, or places." 

The Quakers found their way to America, where they 




The Middle Colonies. 



62 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTnKY 

received anything but a cordial welcome. Several colonies, 
indeed, passed laws which made it a crime for captains to 
give the members of this new sect passage in their ships. 
They were banished, Hogged, imprisoned; but persecution 
„ E only made them more zealous, and they returned 

land perse- after banishment only to receive severer punish- 
cuted the ment. The Puritan rulers of Massachusetts were 
Qua ers. more ] iarsn m their treatment of the Quakers than 
those of any other colony and hanged four of them on Boston 
Common. But the people of the Bay Colony, as a whole, were 
not in sympathy with such extreme measures and the persecu- 
tion gradually died out as the spirit of liberty increased. 

69. William Penn. — The cause of the much-abused Quak- 
ers w r as warmly taken up by William Penn, who had become 
a Friend while at college. His father, an English admiral 
and a standi friend of the Duke of York, remonstrated 
with his son in vain, punished him, sent him abroad, and 
even disinherited him, but finally took him back and left him 
a fortune. 

William Penn had become interested in America while 
acting as an arbitrator in a dispute between the Quaker 
proprietors of West Jersey. He began to plan how the New 
World might become a refuge for the despised sect. When, 
on the death of his father, he discovered that the king owed 
his father £16,000, he proposed that the debt be paid in 
American land. King Charles was not unwilling to make 
Penn's ^his arrangement, and granted to Penn a tract 
Grant from south of New York. The territory included Dela- 
the King. waxe anc j \ anL \ formerly given to other colonies. 
The rival claims created bitter disputes in after years. l At 

1 A dispute with Maryland over the southern boundary of . Pennsylvania 
soon occurred. Pennsylvania claimed south as far as the entrance to Dela- 
ware Bay. while Maryland declared her northern boundary to he the 40th 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



63 



the time of the grant, however, the king was not thinking or 
caring about future disputes. 

70. Pennsylvania. — The story is told that Penn decided 
to call his province Sylvania and that the king added Penn 
for the first syllable. It is further related that Penn objected 
to the addition, saying that it was contrary to his wish and 
principle to be thus honored. 
To this objection, the king 
replied that he had no inten- 
tion of honoring William Penn, 
but only wished to perpetuate 
the memory of Sir William 
Penn, the admiral, and re- 
fused to change the name. 
Thus, "after many watchings, 
solicitings, and disputes in 
council," wrote Penn, "my 
country was confirmed to me 
under the great seal of Eng- 
land. God will bless it and make it a great nation." 

As settlers were already in the province, Penn wrote them 
a letter expressing the hope that they would not be troubled 
by his coming. He declared that he had no desire to increase 
his fortune at their expense, and promised that they should 
be governed by laws of their own making. 

71. The Colony. — The first of the colonists under Penn 
were sent over in 1681, but Penn himself did not arrive until 
the next year. He made a treaty with the Indians that was 

parallel. The dispute lasted for eighty years and was finally compromised. 
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two eminent astronomers and 
surveyors, marked a boundary line between the two colonies. Milestones 
were set up, every fifth one bearing on one side the arms of Penn and on 
the other those of Baltimore. This Mason and Dixon line became famous 
in after years as the dividing line between the free and the slave states. 




William Penn. 



64 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

never broken, laid out the city of Philadelphia, and granted 
a Charter of Privileges for the government of the colony. 
Religious freedom was given to all who believed in God, and 
the people were allowed great liberty. 

JjL.v^D f..«.44U U~*tt- .JZu*. »J3 £~£*2 

6y fU-^ir^^Zi,.^^ 




X 







■Y&J* 'rm££ 



'*-> 



Indian Receipt for Tex Thousand Dollars i\ 
Payment of Land Sold by the Representatives 
OF the Six Nations to the Descendants of 
William Penn, 1769. 

Penn always maintained his friendly attitude towards the 
colony, and in his old age wrote, "If, in the relation between 
us, the people want of me anything that would make them 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 65 

happier, I shall readily grant it." Pennsylvania became 
"an asylum to the good and the oppressed of every nation." 
Quakers came to it from England, Germans from Germany, 
and large numbers of Scotch-Irish from Ireland. In three 
years Philadelphia grew from a hamlet of a few Phila- 
houses to a city of six hundred dwellings. In so delphia. 
short a space of time the colony had grown to be larger than 
New York after its fifty years of occupation. 

SUMMARY 

Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing in the employ of the 
Dutch East India Company, entered the harbor of the present 
city of New York and explored the course of the river which 
now bears his name. Because of this voyage the Dutch claimed 
the land bordering upon the river and sent out colonists. Later 
they spread to the surrounding districts and made the first 
settlements in New Jersey and Delaware. 

The region occupied by the Dutch colony of New Nether- 
land was claimed by the English, who sent an expedition to 
capture it. The Dutch governor surrendered, and the colony 
was thenceforth known as New York. 

A religious sect called Quakers or Friends was greatly perse- 
cuted both in England and in the colonies. William Penn, a 
wealthy Quaker, received from the king a tract of land in 
America in payment of a debt. He founded the colony of 
Pennsylvania, where not only Quakers but other persecuted 
people found a refuge. 



^r— 

CHAPTER VII 

LIFE IN THE COLONIES 



72. Geographical Conditions. — The situation of mountains 
and rivers, the climate, and the conditions of the soil deter- 
mined in a large measure the varying characters and occupa- 



66 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

tions of the inhabitants of the English colonies. In New 
In the England the stony, hilly country forbade extensive 

North. farms, the good harbors of the coast developed 

fishing industries and commerce, and the rapid rivers fur- 
nished water power for various manufactures. The cold 
climate fostered an active, vigorous people. 

In the South the rich lands favored large plantations. The 
man}- quiet rivers made communication safe and easy, but 
In the they were not used for manufacturing purposes. 

South. The Middle region combined certain physical con- 

ditions of both North and South. Therefore the towns were 
not so numerous as in New England, and the farms were 
larger, though they were not so extensive as in Virginia. 

73. The People. — New England and Virginia were almost 
entirely inhabited by emigrants from England. The Carolinas 
had, in addition to English settlers, colonists from the north 
of Ireland and from Scotland, and a number of French ref- 
ugee Huguenots. In the Middle colonies were various nation- 
alities, English and Dutch in New York and New Jersey, 
Swedes in Delaware, and Germans and Scotch-Irish in Penn- 
sylvania. 

74. Social Conditions. — There were few members of the 
English nobility in America. Most of the colonists, South as 
well as North, came from the thrifty middle class. Yet even 
in democratic New England social lines were sharply drawn. 
The members of the learned professions — the ministers, the 
doctors, and the lawyers — formed the upper class. Seats 
in church were given according to rank or the contribution 
that a man made to the minister's salary. The poet, .John (!. 
Whittier, has written in regard to this custom the following 
lines: 

" In the goodly house of worship, where in order due and fit, 
As by public vote directed, classed and ranked, the people sit." 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 



67 



At Harvard College the students were arranged in class or 
at table in the order of their father's positions in the com- 
munity. Even the dress of the people was carefully regulated. 
Men who were worth less than two hundred pounds could not 
ornament their garments with gold or silver lace, and their 
wives were prosecuted if they wore silk hoods or scarfs. 

In New York the patroons, Dutch owners of the great 
estates on the Hudson, constituted the aristocratic class. 
They rented their lands to tenant farmers and obtained large 




A Manor House in New York. 



incomes therefrom. In the South also the gentry were the 
great land owners. They lived in luxury and patronized all 
who had to work with their hands. 

However, there were few very poor people in any of the 
colonies. New England had practically none, and in Phila- 
delphia it was said no beggars were to be seen, for none had 
the "least temptation to take up that scandalous life." New 
York was not so fortunate and was put to some difficulty in 
caring for its poor. In North Carolina too there were a 



68 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

number of unprosperous people, most of whom were outcasts 
from Virginia. 

75. Servants. — The poorest people in all the colonies were 
Redemp- those descended from the redemptioners, or inden- 
tioners. tured servants. Some had either sold or bound 
themselves to pay their passage across the Atlantic; others 
had been transported for crimes and misdemeanors; and many- 
had been kidnaped and sold by their captors. During their 
time of service these redemptioners could be bought or sold 
at the pleasure of their owners. At the end of a term of 
years, usually not over seven, they were given their freedom. 
The worthless among these servants caused their owners 
much trouble, and rewards were continually offered for 
runaways. 

Besides these redemptioners the only servants were slaves, 

and they were in every colony. In New England they were 

emploved mostly as house servants and never be- 
Slaves. 

came very numerous. But if New England did 

not find it profitable to keep negro slaves, she did find it 

greatly to her advantage to import them into Virginia and the 

other Southern colonies. Many of the Virginia planters were 

disturbed by the rapid increase of negroes in their colony 

and desired to stop the trade in men and women. England, 

however, also found the slave trade profitable and would not 

prohibit it. In South Carolina the slaves soon outnumbered 

the white inhabitants, and there, in the unhealthy rice fields, 

their condition was most pitiable. 

76. Cities. — Because of the small farms and the necessity 
of keeping together from fear of the Indians, the New England 
colonists lived near one another in towns and villages. Boston 
was the largest city in America up to the middle of the eigh- 
teenth century, and Salem, Portsmouth, Newport, and New 
Haven were towns of considerable importance. Philadelphia 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 69 

came next to Boston in size, and was well laid out with 
straight, wide streets bordered by handsome houses. 

New York was even in those early colonial days the gayest 
city in the colonies, and had the most varied population. 1 
Albany was a flourishing town, but all the other settlements 
of the middle colonies were small villages. Baltimore was 
not founded until 1729, but it grew rapidly and in fifty years 
had a population of 20,000. 




A Southern Colonial Home. 

Charleston was the only city in the South worthy of the 
name. In many places the colonists of South Carolina could 
not live on the plantations because of the unhealthfullness 
of the country. Therefore they generally left overseers 

1 The first charter for New York City was granted in 1689 by Thomas 
Dongan, English governor of the colony. This was superseded by the 
Montgomerie Charter in 1731. The rights which Dongan gave to Albany 
in a charter granted a year or two before that to New York are incorpo- 
rated in the present city charter of Albany. 



70 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to rule their great country estates and made their homes in 
Charleston, where the breezes blow fresh from the sea. In 
Virginia the planters, prefering country to city life, lived 
more generally on their plantations. Williamsburg, the capi- 
tal of the colony, was but a small village. 

77. Travel. — Roads outside of the towns were poor in 
all the colonies. At first they were usually bridle paths with- 
out bridges and were often impassable in bad weather. Later 




A Massachusetts Tavern. 

Built in 1095 

they were widened to cart roads, but history does not record 
bridges broad enough to admit a wagon until 1669. In the 
South sloops and boats were used almost entirely as means 
of transportation. 

It was said to be easier to go to London than to travel from 
Boston to Virginia bv land. Therefore there was little com- 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 71 

munication between the colonies. It naturally followed that, 
as they knew little of one another, there was no close bond of 
sympathy between them. In the South a visitor was always 
welcome, for it was he who brought the news. Robert 
Beverley writes that in Virginia a traveler needed no other 
recommendation than that of being a human creature. Even 
a poor planter was glad to give up his one bed to make 
room for a weary traveler. South Carolina was noted for 
its hospitality. A traveler there had little need of money. 
Every house was open to all respectable strangers, and tavern 
keeping was a very unprofitable business. In the Northern 
colonies, however, the taverns held an important place in 
village life. They were to those early colonists what news- 
papers now are to us, for it was there that all the men of the 
town gathered to learn whatever news of the outside world 
a passing traveler might bring. 

Few letters were written, and even after postal routes were 
laid, the riders went only when their bags were full. The first 
mail between New York and Boston started on the The First 
first day of January, 1673. In his letter to Gover- Mail- 
nor Winthrop of Connecticut, Governor Lovelace of New York 
wrote that he considered this monthly post the best means for 
bringing about a mutual understanding between the colonies. 

78. Houses. — The first houses of the colonists were built 
of logs and seldom had more than one room, had no plaster 
on the walls, and for windows had only wooden shutters. As 
the country grew older, however, these rough shelters were 
replaced by more substantial dwellings built after the style 
of those in England and Holland. The wealthy merchants 
of the Northern towns and the owners of the great Southern 
plantations lived in handsome mansions built of brick, or 
stone, or wood. Much of the building material was brought 
from Europe and the furniture was imported. 



72 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



The furnishings of the smaller houses were mainly of home 
manufacture. Benches and stools took the place of chairs 
and couches. Beds were often only rude frames fastened 
against the wall, on which were placed mattresses stuffed with 
mosses or corn husks. Frequently hemlock boughs were used 
for beds. The tired colonists slept well on these hard couches, 
for. as they said, "a hard day's work makes a soft bed." 

The great kitchen, with its fireplace large enough to hold a 




Tin-: Kitchen Fireplace. 

four- or six-foot log. with its festoons of dried fruits and vege- 
tables, with its spinning-wheel and loom, was the center of 
family life. The best room was reserved for ceremonious 
occasions, such as weddings and funerals. There were almost 
no carpets anywhere, but the floors were carefully covered 
with fine white sand, which was often elaborately marked in 
figures. 

79. Utensils. — Only the wealthy families could buy gold 
and silver dishes, but there were few who did not own at least 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 73 

one silver spoon. Dishes and platters of various sorts, and 
common spoons were made of pewter, a mixture of tin and 
lead. In early times forks were seldom used. Knife, spoon, 
napkin, and fingers were thought sufficient for the proper 
handling of food at table. Wooden dishes of all descriptions 
were employed, but even these were not very numerous. One 
wooden trencher usually sufficed for a plate for two people, 
and when a Connecticut deacon, who owned a sawmill, cut 
out a trencher for each one of his children, his neighbors said 
that he was too extravagant, even for a deacon. Cups and 
mugs were also scarce, so drink was passed around the table 
in a large tankard shared in common. Gourds of various 
shapes and sizes made good bottles, skimmers, dippers, cups, 
and bowls. The best bowls, however, were formed out of 
maple knots and were so highly prized as frequently to be 
mentioned in wills. 

80. Home Industries. — Almost everything that a farmer's 
family could eat or wear or use was homemade. Wool was 
cut from the sheep's back, carded, spun into thread, and 
woven into cloth for suits, dresses, and coats. Flax was grown 
in the fields and made into table linen, towels, and sheets. 
Straw was plaited for bonnets and hats. Gloves, mittens, and 
stockings were knit; butter and cheese manufactured; candles 
dipped; and fruits, vegetables, and meats salted, cured, dried, 
and preserved for winter use. The farmer made his tools, 
his harnesses, his sleds, and his carts. He was mason, brick- 
layer, and carpenter in one. 

In the South the slaves did most of the real labor of the 
household, though the mistress and her daughters gave care- 
ful oversight to the work. In the Middle and Northern col- 
onies, every member of the family was a helper. Even the 
little children had their tasks of knitting, sewing, and dish 
washing, almost as soon as they could walk. 



74 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

81. Amusements. — Yet with all their many and varied 
duties, the colonists found time for amusements. Thanks- 
giving Day and election and training days were holidays that 
were greatly enjoyed in New England. Families helped one 
another when any great task was to be done, and quiltings, 
corn huskings, house raisings, and road breakings in winter 
were made the occasions for much fun and merry-making. 

The Dutch were fond of sports and games of all sorts. In 
the winter they skated, coasted, and went sleighing. They 
bowled and played trock (a kind of croquet) and tick-tack, 
which was much like the game of backgammon. In 1753 a 
theater was opened in New York, where plays were given 
three times a week. 

In the South men engaged in all manner of outdoor sports, 
especially horse racing, fox hunting, and cock-fighting. 

82. Sunday. — An old hymn says: — 

" New England's Sabbath day 

Is heaven-like, still ami pure." 

Sunday began at sunset Saturday night and lasted until 
sunset the next night. Everything was made ready on Satur- 
day so that no cooking, sweeping, or other housework except 
that absolutely necessary was done on the holy day. No one 
could run, or walk, or ride except quietly to church. All 
the people were expected to attend the services and all ab- 
sences were carefully investigated by the tithing man. The 
sermons were long and difficult to understand, but no one 
was allowed even to nod, for the tithing man was careful to 
arouse every sleeper with his long pole. 

The early Virginians were just as particular to keep the 
Sabbath as were the Puritans. One of the early governors 
even went so far as to declare that absence from church should 
be punished by death. This penalty was never imposed, but 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 



75 



offenders were fined and even put in the stocks. If one 
made a journey on Sunday, other than to go to church or to 
attend a case "of extreme necessity," he was fined twenty 
pounds of tobacco. In times of trouble, such as famine or 
Indian raid, the last Wednesday in every month was set apart 
for prayers and was nearly as carefully kept as Sunday. 

The Middle colonists were not so strict in their observance 
of Sunday, but even with them laws were framed which care- 
fully guarded the day. No Sunday excursions or picnics were 
allowed, the vicinity of the churches was kept quiet and trans- 
gressors were punished. 

83. Punishments. — The colonists had many strange 
punishments for crime and 
wrongdoing which have en- 
tirely passed out of use. 
These were also at that time 
common in the mother 
country. Samuel Johnson, 
the English author, once 
said, "Madam, we have 
different modes of restrain- 
ing evil — stocks for men, a 
ducking stool for women, 
and a pound for beasts." 
The stocks consisted of a 
bench on which the offender sat. In front was a board with 
holes through which the feet were thrust and held securely. 
The pillory was another instrument for punish 
nient similar in idea to the stocks. On a plat 
form were erected two upright posts across which was a board 
with holes just large enough for wrists and neck. The board 
was divided so that the upper half could be raised. After the 
culprit was placed in position, the upper part of the board 




The Stocks. 



Pillory. 



70 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




The Pillory. 



was lowered and locked, holding the hands and head securely. 

Frequently a card was fastened to the breast of the trans- 
gressor, on which was a letter 
denoting his offense. Whipping 
posts often stood by the stocks 
and the pillory, and these were 
used as punishments for lying, 
swearing, selling spirits to the 
Indians, and other misdemeanors. 
One of the most peculiar penal 
instruments was the ducking 
stool, which was used to punish 
scolding women. John Endicott 
saw one in use in \'ir- The Duck- 
ginia and wrote a de- in S Stool. 
scription of it. "At ye end of a 
long arm," he said, "is fixed a 

stool upon which the woman was fastened by cords, her gown 

held fast around her feete. 

The machine was then 

moved up to the edge of ye 

pond . . . and ye woman 

was allowed to go down 

under ye water for ye space 

of half a minute." Massa- 
chusetts at first punished 

her scolding women by gag- 
ging them and setting 

them before their doors 

''for all coiners and goers 

to gaze at." Hut this 

form of punishment was abandoned for the ducking stool, 

the use of which soon became universal in all the colonies. 




The Ducking Stool 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES 77 

84. Schools. — The colonies varied greatly in the regard 
paid to the education of their children. The first public school 
in America was established in Dorchester as early as 1639, 
and eight years later the Massachusetts legislature passed a 
law which ordered every village of fifty families to have a 
school for teaching all children to read and write. Further- 
more, it was ordained that every town of one hundred families 
must set up a grammar school to fit the youth for the univer- 
sity. The Dutch also started schools at an early date, but 
they were private schools and most of them were not continued 
after the English took possession of New Netherland. The 
Middle colonies had some good private schools, but no public 
money was spent to educate the people. 

In the South the settlers taught their children as best they 
could, or sent them to England to be educated. The planta- 
tions were too scattered for the children to come together for 
school purposes, and the authorities were opposed to public 
education. Governor Berkeley's remark on this point is often 
quoted: "I thank God," he said, "there are no free schools, 
nor printing: and I hope we shall not have them, these hun- 
dred years; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy 
and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them. . . 
God keep us from both." As a result of this short-sighted 
policy held by the magistrates of Virginia, the poor children 
of that colony were ignorant of even the simplest knowledge 
of letters and figures, while in Massachusetts it would have 
been difficult to find a child of school age who could not read 
and write. Virginia, however, had schools where children 
were taught to spin and weave. In 1668 the colony passed 
a law that such schools should be established in every 
county. 

85. Colleges. — Massachusetts, in 1636, though disturbed 
by the hostility of the Indians and by controversies of various 



78 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




sorts, appropriated four hundred pounds to start a college at 
Newtown. Two years later,. John Harvard, the young minister 
at Charlestown, died and left his library and one half of his 
estate to the new college. The college was named Harvard 
in his honor and the town was called Cambridge for the Cam- 
bridge in old England, where most of the Puritans were edu- 
cated. Harvard 
soon enjoyed a high 
reputation and Eng- 
lish Puritans sent 
1 1 leir sons to America 
to be educated t here. 
The next college 
founded in America 
was William and 
Mary Col lege, at 
Williamsburg, Vir- 
ginia. Dr. James Blair, its first president, went to England 
to collect money for it. He met with little sympathy from 
the colonial commissioners, who seemed to think that it 
would be a waste to expend money in America when every 
penny was needed to carry on the war with France. Blair 
urged that clergymen, and a college in which to educate them, 
were needed in Virginia. ''You must not forget," said he, 
"that people in \ 'irginia have souls to save as well as people 
in England." The commissioners told him that the colony 
had better devote itself to the growing of tobacco. Blair, 
however, persevered and the college was chartered in 1693. 
Seven years later, in 1700, Yale College was founded at New 
Haven, and before the French and Indian War, King's Col- 
lege, now Columbia University, Nassau Hall, now Princeton, 
and the University of Pennsylvania had been begun. 



From the engraving by Paul Revere. 

Hakvakd College in 1720. 



THE FRENCH COLONIES 79 

SUMMARY 

The occupations of the inhabitants of the thirteen English 
colonies were influenced in a large measure by the character 
of the soil. In the North, where the soil was stony, the people 
lived in villages and became sailors, ship-builders, and mer- 
chants. In the South, where the land was fertile, the colonists 
had extensive plantations and did not live in towns and cities. 

Though there were no members of the nobility in America, 
social lines were closely drawn. However, there were few very 
poor people, except those who were descended from the inden- 
tured servants. Negro slaves performed most of the manual 
work in the South, but were not numerous in the North. 

Only the wealthiest people could afford to buy goods im- 
ported from Europe. On the farms almost everything that 
was worn or used was of home manufacture. In the North- 
ern colonies everybody had to work hard, but even there time 
was found for various kinds of amusements. Sundays were 
everywhere carefully kept as holy days, but observed more 
strictly in New England and Virginia than elsewhere. 

New England, at an early date, provided free education for 
the children. The other colonies had some good private schools, 
but spent no public money for educational purposes. 

4K 

CHAPTER \ III 

THE FRENCH COLONIES 

86. The French in Canada. — We must now go back and 
study the part France played in the colonizing of America. 
Though no further attempt was made to settle Carolina after 
the destruction of Port Royal by the Spaniards, the French 
did not lose their interest in the New World. The hardy 
sailors of Normandy made profitable voyages each year to 
the fishing grounds of Newfoundland, and in 1524 Verraz- 
zano (ver'rat-sa'no), an Italian navigator in the employ of 



80 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



France, coasted along the shore from Cape Fear to Labra- 
dor. 

Eleven years later, Jacques (artier (zhak kaVtya'), a jolly 
Frenchman, sailed up the great river of Canada as far as 
Jacques the present city of Montreal. He built a fort on 
Cartier. the banks of the St. Charles where he and his men, 
tormented by scurvy and in constant fear of the Indians, 1 
spent the long northern winter. When, in July, Cartier re- 
turned to France, his report was not such as would tempt 
settlers to emigrate to the valley of the St. Lawrence. 
87. The Founding of Quebec. — Religious wars for half a 

century j > reven t ed the 
French from sending out 
colonists. In 1608, how- 
ever, the year after the 
founding of Jamestown, 
Samuel de Champlain sailed 
up the St. Lawrence with 
two ships. His most earnest 
desires were, first, to con- 
vert the Indians to the 
Catholic faith, and second, 
to establish the power of 
France in the New World. He built a fort where the river 
narrowed and the cliffs rose high on either side and called 
the place Quebec. Here he spent the winter with twenty- 
eight men, while his ships went back to France for rein- 
forcements and supplies. When the ships returned in the 
spring, there were only eight men at Quebec to give them a 
welcome. But the coinage of the men was not daunted by 

'To hide their weakness the French frequently I'eat against the sides 
of the fort with stones and sticks so that the Indians would think thai they 
were engaged in vigorous labor. 




Samuel de Champlain. 



THE FRENCH COLONIES 81 

the sufferings of the Canadian winter, and Champlain, as soon 
as possible, set out with a party of Indians to explore the 
waterways of the St. Lawrence. In his first expe- Discoveries 
dition he discovered Lake Champlain. Each year of Cham- 
he pushed farther and farther west until he reached P lain - 
Lake Huron. Champlain had a wonderful faculty of winning 
the confidence and respect of the Indians, and thus, from the 
very beginning, the French had little to fear from the natives. 
Quebec, however, grew slowly and after seventeen years it 
had only fifty or sixty inhabitants, mostly traders and ad- 
venturers. 

88. The Jesuits. — In 1625 the first company of priests, 
belonging to the Society of Jesus, arrived at Quebec. Strong 
in the belief that " the saving of a soul is worth more than the 
conquest of an empire," they abandoned even the comforts 
that could be had in a frontier fort and went into the wilder- 
ness where no white men had ever been. Here they lived 
with the Indians and in the Indian way, and labored long and 
faithfully with suffering and death for their rewards. "Should 
we at last die of misery, how great our happiness would be," 
wrote one of these heroic priests, and surely if to die of 
misery was their idea of happiness, many of them were happy. 

Though their work was of little lasting benefit to the Indians, 
it was of great value to France. The Jesuits blazed the way 
for the soldier, the trapper, and the trader. Their tact and 
their knowledge of the red man's character won the allegiance 
of the Indian, if their religion did not win his heart. The 
work of one of these missionaries, Piquet, was said to have 
been worth that of two regiments of soldiers. 

89. Marquette and Joliet. — The Indians who visited the 
frontier mission post of Michilhnackinac (Mish-il-i-mack'-i- 
nack) spoke of a river which flowed to the south, ever gain- 
ing in volume. They called it the Mississippi (" the father of 



82 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



waters"), but no one seemed to know just where it entered 
the sea. The French wondered whether it flowed into the 
Atlantic, or the Pacific, or the Gulf of Mexico. 

Father Marquette (niar'kef), who had charge of the port of 
Michilimackinac, had a great desire to seek this river. lie 




Marquette Preaching to the Indians. 

did not, however, leave his post until, in 1673, Louis .loliet 
(zho'lya') arrived at the mission. Stories of the greal river 
had even reached Quebec, and Joliet had been dispatched 
to join Marquette and explore its course. Together they set 
out in birch canoes and finally, by means of lakes and streams 
and portages, they reached (he Mississippi, with a joy, as 



THE FRENCH COLONIES 



83 



Louisiana. 



Marquette wrote, which he could not express. 1 They floated 
down the river as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, and then, 
having determined that it flowed into the Gulf, they returned, 
Marquette to his work among the Indians and Joliet to Quebec 
with an account of the voyage. 

90. La Salle. — Eight years later (1681) Robert Cavelier 
de La Salle, the commander of 
Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario, 
set out to complete the explora- 
tions begun by Marquette. On 
the 19th of April, 1682, he reached 
the mouth of the Mississippi. 
Erecting a cross and a column on 
which were engraved 
the arms of France, he 
took possession, in the name of the 
king, of all the country which bor- 
dered upon the river and its 
branches. He named' it Louisiana 
in honor of Louis XIV. 

Two years later he sailed from France for the mouth of the 
river, and on this expedition was accompanied by a large 

'Marquette, however, was not the first white man to see the Missis- 
sippi. In 1513 Florida had been discovered and named by Ponce de Leon, 
a Spanish explorer. In 1539 Ferdinand de Soto and six hundred Spaniards 
set out from Tampa Bay, Florida, to search for gold. U/rged on by stories 
of vast treasures to the west, they pushed their way through trackless for- 
ests, innumerable streams, and treacherous swamps, until they reached the 
great river. This they crossed with difficulty, and for a year longer con- 
tinued their fruitless search. Then, worn out by hardships and thoroughly 
discouraged, they turned their steps to the sea. When they again reached 
the Mississippi, De Soto became ill and died. His body was secretly buried 
by night in the river, in order that the Indians might be kept in ignorance 
of his death. His companions built several small vessels and succeeded in 
reaching Mexico. But this was after nearly one half of their number had 
perished. 




KoBEKT DE LA SaLLE. 



84 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



colony fitted out by the king. But the commander of the 
fleet was jealous of La Salle and, purposely missing the Missis- 
sippi, landed the colony on the shores of Texas and returned 
to France. La Salle attempted to find the Mississippi by 
marching overland, but was unsuccessful in his search, and 








SB 4 < V -. 






FRENCH OCCUPATION ( V ^\ \ *&**% 

OK \ ^ \ 

NORTH AMERICA \£ 



fkL r \ «"^ v- »■' 



The French Occupation of North America. 

finally starting out for Canada was assassinated by one of his 
followers. 

91. New France. — In spite of La Salle's failure to found a 
colony, he had added greatly to the domains of the French 
king in America. At his death, and due in large measure to his 
efforts, New France extended from the Gulf of St. Lawrence 



THE FRENCH COLONIES 85 

to the farther end of the Great Lakes, from the Great Lakes 
south to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Appalachian Moun- 
tains to the farthest source of the Missouri. Between this 
great territory and the Atlantic was a narrow strip of country, 
a few hundred miles wide, occupied by twelve English col- 
onies. Even some of this land was claimed by the French. 
The English colonies, on their part, laid claim to much of 
Louisiana under their grants of land from sea to sea; they 
had, however, done nothing to possess it. 

92. Iberville. — " Possession is nine points of the law," 
says a common proverb. And in accordance with this 
proverb, France determined to show the validity of her claim 
by something more substantial than words on paper. With 
the idea of guarding the southern gateway of Louisiana and 
keeping the English out of the valley of the Mississippi, 
she dispatched another colony to the Gulf of Mexico. 
It was commanded by Lemoyne d' Iberville (le- settlement 
mwan' debar'vel'), the idol of the Canadians and of of Missis- 
the French navy. He founded Biloxi in 1699, and s[ W { Val " 
nineteen years later his brother, Bienville, estab- ey * 
lished the city of New Orleans. The vast stretches of New 
France were now guarded by Quebec on the north and New 
Orleans on the south. The waterways connecting with the 
lakes were also fortified, and the only unguarded approach 
to Louisiana was over the mountains on the east. 

93. The French and English Colonies. — Thus we see two 
nations firmly established in America, north of Mexico, which 
was Spanish territory. In their religion, in their method of 
life, and in their views upon government, they possessed few 
points in common. The English had come to America to 
make permanent homes. They brought their families, they 
built substantial houses, they cleared the land for cultivation 
and depended upon themselves for subsistence. On the other 



86 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATIN HISTORY 



hand the French wore mostly hunters, traders, soldiers, and 
adventurers. Very little land was under cultivation, and the 
people relied to a large extent upon the French king lor their 
supplies. 

Though the English were under the control of king or lord- 
proprietor, they had in every colony some share in the govern- 
ment, and in New England they were almost independent. 
Moreover, they looked to the future, and were thoughtful, 
sober, and self-reliant. The French were ruled by the gover- 




French Traders Greeting Indians. 

nor. the soldier, and the priest. They knew nothing of self- 
government and did not desire to know. They thought only 
of the present moment, were light-hearted, picturesque in 
dress and living, and dependent. However, the Fnglish 
colonists were not united either in religion or in government; 
they were jealous of each others' liberties and prosperities; 
they had no army for mutual defense, and no central power. 
New Fiance, on the contrary, was a great military camp and 
every man capable of carrying arms was ready at all times to 



THE FRENCH COLONIES 87 

rally to the defense of the colony. Its settlers acknowledged 
only one authority, that of the king of France as represented 
by the governor. They were all of one religious faith. 

94. The Indians and the French. — In no way did the 
French and the English differ so much as in their attitude 
towards the Indians. The natives saw the forests fall, their 
hunting grounds disappear, and the number of white people 
increasing year by year. "You and the French," said they 
to the Englishman, Sir William Johnson, 1 "are like the two 
edges of a pair of shears, and we are the cloth which is cut 
to pieces between them." 

But the Indians did not dread the French as they did the 
English. The French best understood the Indian character. 
They knew how to flatter the pride of the Indians and their 
love of display; they were able to converse with them in 
their own language and in their own way; they lived among 
them, married their women, and often rivaled them in wood- 
craft and in cunning. And more than all else, the French did 
not deprive the Indians of their hunting grounds. The 
greatest product of New France was furs, and the French 
were just as anxious to keep the hunting grounds unmolested 
as were the Indians. Moreover, the existence of all French 

1 Sir William Johnson probably had more influence over the Indians of 
New York than any other white man. He had the oversight of a large 
tract of land in the Mohawk Valley and thus came into constant contact 
with the Indians. He always treated them with fairness and honesty. 
He lived among them, often wore their dress, talked their language flu- 
ently, and was acquainted with their customs and traditions. At the out- 
break of the French and Indian War he was made " sole superintendent 
of the affairs of the Six I'nited Nations." He led the colonial forces 
against Crown Point but met the French at Lake George. In the battle 
that followed, Johnson completely defeated the French and thus saved 
New York. For this victory he received the thanks of Parliament and 
was made a baronet. For further services in the war he was granted a 
tract of land of a hundred thousand acres. At the time of Pontiac's War 
his influence alone prevented the Iroquois from joining in the hostilities. 



ss 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



forts and trading posts depended upon the goodwill of the 

Indians. Therefore, with steadfast purpose, the French won 

the friendship of the Algonquin tribes, who occupied most of 

the territory north of Georgia and east of the Mississippi. 1 

95. The Indians and the 

English. — On the other 

hand the English formed 

large settlements and 

cleared broad tracts of 

land. Accordingly, 

through this colonization, 

the Indians were pushed 

out of their old haunts 

until it seemed that they 

would soon not be able, as 

they said, "to hunt a bear 

into the hole of a tree but 

some Englishman would 

claim a right to it as being 

his tree." The English as 

well as the French had 

labored faithfully for the 

conversion of the red men. 

Title Page op Eliot's Indian Bible j hn K ,; ()t (h(1 « apost l e 

of 1663. , _ .. ,. , , 

to the Indians, had trans- 

Translated: "The Whole Holy Bible oi God, 

both Old Testamenl and also New Testament, lated the Bible into their 

This turned [into Indian] by the Servant of. Christ t()no . uo ag oa ,.] v ag K;- )S 

who is n.llcd J, .hn Eliot. Cambridge: Printed l,,11 .- ul a& call J ai '"'"^ 

by Samuel Green and Marmaduke Johnson, 1663." aild had formed several 

communities of "praying Indians" in Massachusetts. Other 



M A MV S S E 

•ffUNXEETL'P ANATAMWB 

HUP-BIBLUM GOD | 

N4NEESWE 

SNUKKONE TESTAMENT 

J| K A H W O N K 

I WUSKU TESTAMENT, g 



li JOHN ELIOT- 

'I _'•:« 



Si' c * '-' * " J na R: i|S 

I* P.:-«c.i(»piu(hpe Swl C,«» kJl AbtmmUq T ,U f"- ;gj 

2a 1 6 <s v -S 



imrmwifiiXimwmwf'fflF 



From "Early Bibles of America," by John 
Wright, 1)1). Thomas Whittaker. 



■In the struggle thai was to come between t lie French and the English, 
the tribes occupying the country bordering on tin- Gulf of Mexico took no 
part . These included the Cherokees and the several t ribes of the Maskoki, 
the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, and Appalachees 



THE FRENCH COLONIES 89 

Englishmen in other colonies had worked among the Indians, 
but, owing to ignorance of the Indian language, had not 
been able to come into close sympathy with them. 

The character of the red man — his cruelty, his laziness, 
his slovenly mode of living — was entirely repulsive to the 
British mind. Most of the colonies, New England especially, 
had endured terrible sufferings from the hands of the Indians. 
In the Pequot and King Philip's wars the colonists had 
seen their homes burned, their crops destroyed, their friends 
tortured, their wives murdered, their children carried into 
captivity. 1 Therefore it is not surprising that they finally 
regarded the Indians as little better than the beasts of the 
field. 

96. The Iroquois. — One important Indian nation re- 
mained friendly to the English. This was the Iroquois or 
Five Nations, whose lands occupied the fertile region between 
the Hudson River and the Great Lakes. They perhaps did 
not number more than four thousand warriors, but so great 
were their courage, their skill, and their intelligence, that even 
before the Dutch arrived at Manhattan they were the terror 
of all the Indian tribes of the East. 

'The Pequots, the most warlike tribe of Indians in New England, lived 
mostly in Connecticut. In 1636 war with this tribe was brought about by 
the brutal murder of some of the settlers. It was waged by the Indians 
with ferocious cruelty, and by the colonists with desperate earnestness. 
Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth sent soldiers to Connecticut, and the 
war was not ended until the Indians were practically exterminated. 

King Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, was the son of Massasoit, who 
had been a good friend to the early Plymouth settlers and to Roger Wil- 
liams. Philip hated the English, and as soon as he became sachem of his 
tribe began to make plans to destroy them. War broke out in June, 1675, 
and was ended when Philip was killed in August of the next year. The 
Massachusetts and Rhode Island colonists had endured the most terrible 
sufferings. Thirteen towns had been completely destroyed and many 
more damaged. Scarcely a family could have been found who had not 
lost a member either in battle or by massacre. 



90 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The Iroquois made a treaty of friendship with the Dutch 
and promised always to keep one council fire with them. 
When New Netherland became New York, the Iroquois 
transferred their treaty of friendship to the English. Yet 
they continued their alliance not so much because they loved 
the English as because they hated the Frenchman and his 
Indian allies, the Algonquins. Champlain, on his first explor- 
ing expedition, had won the undying hatred of the Five Nations 
when, in the battle that took place between them and Cham- 
plain's Indians, the guns of «the French had caused their 
defeat. The French later worked hard to conciliate the 
Iroquois, but never succeeded in winning their confidence. 
The active hostility, or passive neutrality, of this powerful 
tribe to the French was of the greatest advantage to the 
English colonies in their struggle with New France. 

SUMMARY 

The French, driven out of the southern pail of North America 
by the Spaniards, began to make explorations in the valley of the 
St. Lawrence. In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, and from 
that time French priests, trappers, and adventurers pushed 
their way westward until they had reached the farthest borders 
of the Great Lakes. Marquette and Joliet found the Missis- 
sippi. La Salle explored it to the Gulf of Mexico and took 
possession of Louisiana. The French then sent colonists to 
the mouth of the Mississippi, and built various forts and settle- 
ments between it and Quebec. 

Thus it came about that two nations were established in 
North America, both claiming the same territory. They were 
unlike in many respects, but especially in their treatment of the 
Indians. The French understood the red man and won the 
friendship of most of the tribes east of the Mississippi. The 
English disliked the Indians, and the Indians hated the Eng- 
lish, because the white men had taken from them so much of 
their land. 

Only the Iroquois withstood the advances of the French, 



THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 91 

and these were powerful enough to render great assistance to 
the English in the struggle which took place between the 
two nations. 

— ^r — 

CHAPTER IX 

THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 

97. Early French and Indian Wars. — That a clash between 
the two nations must come sooner or later was to be expected. 
France and England had been foes for centuries, and a war 
between them was always imminent. American colonies 
would naturally hold the same views as the mother country, 
so that when war broke out in Europe, it was taken up by the 
French and British colonies. The first conflict began in 1690, 
and was caused by European complications. It is usually 
named in history as King William's War. A short period 
of peace succeeded, and then Queen Anne's War followed. 
This, in its turn, was followed by King George's War, which 
was closed with the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-shapeT), 
in 1748. All three of these wars were of similar character, 
and the greatest hardships resulting from them were felt by 
New England and New York. These colonies were nearest 
the Canadian border and most exposed to the fierce attacks 
of the French and their Indian allies. Neither the English 
nor the French gained by these wars any advantage that was 
of permanent value. Nearly all the captured points were 
returned to their original owners and no definite settlement 
regarding boundary lines was made. 1 France and England 

1 England came into possession of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, as it was then 
called, by the treaty of peace at the close of Queen Anne's War. When 
the final struggle with the French began, England', fearing that the 
Acadians would take up arms against her, sent an expedition to Acadia. 
The French peasants were forced to leave their farms, were driven on 
board vessels, and were distributed along the Atlantic coast among the 
various English colonies. 



92 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

still claimed the same territories and peace was only for a 
time. 

98. The French Forts. — Near the close of King George's 
War, the English king granted a tract of land on the Ohio 
River to a company of merchants known as the Ohio Com- 
pany. In 1750 this company made its first expedition, only 
to find that the year before the French had begun to con- 
nect more closely Canada and Louisiana, thus extending and 
uniting their domain. Here and there all through the valley 
of the Ohio the English company found buried lead plates 
bearing the French king's claim, and shields nailed to tree 
trunks which bore similar inscriptions. Following up the 
advance thus evidenced, the French next completed a chain 
of sixty forts, which included such important points as Crown 
Point, Niagara, Detroit, Vincennes (vm-senz'),and Kaskaskia. 
Crown Point was on Lake Champlain, and the English colo- 
nies considered it an insolent invasion of British soil. 

99. Fort Duquesne. — The French also built a fort at the 
junction of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, which 
they called Fort Duquesne (du'-kan')- The governor of Vir- 
ginia claimed this region as within his jurisdiction and sent, 
in 1754, Major George Washington with a small force to drive 
out the intruders. The French were strongly intrenched, 
and Washington was defeated. This skirmish brought on 
the final struggle for the possession of America, the outcome 
of which was to decide whether France or England should 
control the continent. This contest was known as the French 
and Indian War. 

100. The Albany Plan of Union (1754). — England urged 
the colonies to forget their differences and to unite in a plan 
for defense. A convention was called to meet at Albany, 
which w r as attended by delegates from seven colonies. Benja- 
min Franklin introduced a plan which provided for a capital 



THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 93 

city at Philadelphia, a governor-general appointed by the 
Crown, and an assembly elected by the various legislatures 
of the colonies. The assembly was to make the laws, but 
the governor was given the right of veto. The plan was 
adopted by the convention, but when it was referred to the 
colonies and to the English government for acceptance, neither 
America nor England would ratify it. England objected to 
it because it gave too much power to the colonies, and the 
colonies vetoed it because it gave too much power to the king. 

101. General Braddock. — England now sent General 
Braddock to America with a force of regulars. He planned 
three campaigns, and he himself led the expedition against 
Fort Duquesne. He had had much experience as a com- 
mander, but knew nothing about Indian warfare. He re- 
fused to take the suggestions of Washington and other officers 
of the colonial militia and formed his plans according to 
European tactics. 

The French commander of the fort was frightened by the 
size of the English army, and prepared to evacuate Duquesne 
without waiting for the attack. But his lieutenant, Th Def . 
Captain Beaujeu (bo'zhuh'), begged to be allowed and Death 
to meet the English forces. His request was of General 
granted and with less than nine hundred French ra oc " 
and Indians he lay in ambush beside the road. As the red- 
coats came along, they were met by a volley from the hidden 
foe. Braddock immediately formed his men into a solid 
column and returned the fire. But they could not see the 
enemy and their close ranks made a bright target for the 
French guns. Completely terrified by their rapid destruction, 
the British regulars turned and fled, and no efforts of their 
officers could stay the rout. General Braddock was killed, 
and the army was saved from complete destruction only by 
the heroism of the despised colonial troops. 



94 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



102. War Declared. In 17~)() war was formally declared 
between France and England, and preparations were made 
for waging it on a large scale. The Marquis de Montcalm 

was placed in command of all the French forces in America, 
and General London was sent across the Atlantic to lead the 
British and colonial armies. London and his associate offi- 
cers were inefficient, and the colonies were backward in grant- 
ing money and supplies. The next year was disastrous to 
the English. The French gained the advantage in almost 
every battle, and the Indians flocked to the support of the 
victors. Once more the frontiers were drenched in blood. 

103. William Pitt. — In June 1757, William Pitt, the 

famous English statesman, be- 
came secretary of state for 
foreign affairs. With him im- 
mediately a new order came 
in. lie raised a larger army, 
selected new commanders, and 
so aroused the zeal of the colo- 
nists that they responded with 
money and with men. Gen- 
eral Abercrombie was placed 
in command of an army which 
numbered fifty thousand regu- 

Wiluam Pitt. Karl of Chatham. lgJ an(J ( . () ] () , lia l troops. 

Again three expeditions were arranged: one against Fort 
Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain, another against Cape Breton 
r!imn . onc Island, and the third against fort Duquesne. At 

\-- a III p a 1 g 1 1 b 

of 1757 and Ticonderoga no decisive victory was won by either 
I7 5 8 - side. The English captured Cape Breton. The 

French abandoned and burned Fori Duquesne. On its site 
the British erected a new fortification and named it Fort 
Pitt. Moreover, three campaigns were planned for the year 




THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 



95 



Montcalm. 



1758. General Amherst was to make another attempt to 
capture Ticonderoga; General Prideaux (Pre' -do) was to lead 
an expedition against Fort Niagara, and General James 
Wolfe was to attack Quebec itself. 

Montcalm realized that the results at Quebec would decide 
the outcome of the war. 
"Never was Canada in a state 
so critical and full of peril," 

wrote the bishop of 

Quebec to the people 
of his parishes. Every Cana- 
dian who could carry a gun, 
the boy of fifteen and the old 
man of eighty, was pressed 
into service. The French com- 
mander withdrew so many 
troops from the forts in the 
interior that when Amherst 
arrived at Ticonderoga and 
Prideaux at Niagara, both 
places fell into their hands, but not in time for them to give 
aid to Wolfe at Quebec. 

104. The Battle of Quebec. — Meanwhile General Wolfe 
had been making thorough preparations for the siege of 
Quebec. He had been given the power to appoint his own 
officers, and had made his selections because of especial fitness 
and not because of family position and influence. Some of 
King George's councilors were so surprised by the appoint- 
ments that they said that Wolfe must be mad. "Mad is he?" 
the king replied, "then I hope that he will bite some others 
of my generals." As for Wolfe himself, few would have sup- 
posed that he would make a successful leader. He was slight 
and awkward and always suffered from ill health. But he 




The Marquis de Montcalm. 



96 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



had the spirit and the courage of a hero. He neither shunned 
hardships nor feared death, and his soldiers adored him. 

In the early summer of 1759, Wolfe and his army of ten 
thousand men arrived at the Gulf of St. Lawrence in forty 
Wolfe be- ships. The French, believing that the river was 
fore Quebec. no t navigable for large vessels, had declared that 
no man-of-war could get up to Quebec. But the English, 
by means of captured Canadian pilots and by their own skill 
in navigation, sailed up the river, to the great dismay of the 




The Heights of Quebec 



French. The latter, however, believed that Quebec, perched 
high on its steep cliffs, was impregnable, and they sent word 
to General Wolfe, after he had captured Point Levi across 
the river and was able to cover the city with his guns, "You 
may demolish the town, no doubt, but you shall never get 
inside it." With equal firmness Wolfe replied, "I will have 
Quebec if I stay here till the end of November." 

105. The Plains of Abraham. Week after week went by 
and Quebec seemed as far from capture as ever. Wolfe had 
been very sick, but during his illness he perfected his plans so 



THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 



97 



that when health returned he begged his physician to put him 
in such condition that he might be without pain for a few 
days and able to do his duty. In the stillness of a dark night, 
September 12, 1759, while the fleet deceived the French into 
thinking that an assault was to be made below, the army 
advanced up the river to a point above the town. At the 
very place where the French had said that the English could 
not go unless they had wings, and where it was thought that a 
hundred men could keep back an army, the English ascended 
the cliff. Almost without a sound the pickets were captured, 
and when morning came and the mists blew away, Montcalm 
was astonished to see an English army drawn up in battle 
array on the Plains of Abraham. 

Montcalm collected his forces as rapidly as possible and 
hurried to the attack. Wolfe 
personally directed the ar- 
rangement of his men. He 
was everywhere encouraging, 
quieting, steadying his forces. 
When the French assault 
Defeat of came, it was met by 
the French. a steady v o 1 1 e y . 
Then Wolfe gave the command 
to charge. The English bore 
down upon the French, Wolfe 
leading the way. One shot 
struck him, then another; but 
still he pressed on. A third 
lodged in his breast and he 
fell. Then the cry arose, "They run, they run!" "Who 
run?" asked Wolfe. "The enemy, sir; they give way every- 
where." 

Wolfe forthwith gave orders to Colonel Burton to cut off 




General Wolfe. 



IIS 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



their retreat, and died, murmuring, "Now God be praised, I 
will die in peace." Montcalm, also mortally wounded, like- 
wise died, content in the thought that he should not live to 
sec the surrender of the city which he had so long and faith- 
fully defended. 

106. The Treaty of Peace. — Though the capture of Quebec 
practically ended the war, the treaty of peace was not signed 



p2S? Hio ^(i 7- -110.. . -. -zizyiw^ \5~7j'. «J ; ^^^^%$^S|^^^^^ 



Unk } M5 ^ 



frffi ^# 





j£ 






vJSL 



if i 




,y^.i,ii,s/i Country 
English Country 
Oregon Country 



v "\ 



100 ^Longitude West in) from Greenwich 



North America after the Treaty of 17(>. -; >. 



until 1703. By it France was deprived of all her possessions 
in America except two small islands near Newfoundland. 
Canada and all the region between the Allegheny Mountains 
and the Mississippi came into the possession of England, while 
the country west of the Mississippi was turned over to Spain. 
Florida was ceded to (heat Britain by Spain, and remained in 
her possession twenty years, after which it was ceded hack 
In Spain. Vergennes (var'zhen), the French ambassador to 



THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 99 

Constantinople, said when he heard the terms of the treaty: 

"England will, ere long, repent of having removed the only 

check that could keep her colonies in awe. They stand no 

longer in need of her protection; she will call on them to 

contribute towards supporting the burdens they have helped 

to bring on her; and they will answer by striking off all 

dependence." 

SUMMARY 

After several wars between the French and the English 
colonies which gave no particular advantage to either side, 
France redoubled her efforts to occupy the valley of the Missis- 
sippi. An expedition of Virginian militia against Fort Du- 
quesne brought on the French and Indian War. Its outcome 
decided whether France or England would remain the masters 
of North America. 

At first the advantages were for the French. The English 
colonies were not united, were jealous of each other, and their 
English military leaders were either incompetent or unused to 
Indian warfare. Finally, however, when William Pitt became 
secretary for foreign affairs, new plans were laid and skillful 
generals were appointed. The war was closed by the capture 
of Quebec. By the treaty of peace France lost all her territory 
in America except two small islands. 



SECTION II. -THE REVOLUTION 



CHAPTER X 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 



107. Results of the French War. — The war had been a 
great expense both to England and to the colonies. It had 
cost the Americans more than ten million dollars and the lives 
of thirty thousand men. The drain had been excessive, but 
the colonies had learned some valuable lessons. The sons 

of Massachusetts and Virginia, of 
Connecticut and South Carolina, 
had fought side by side. Colonial 
They had come to re- Confidence, 
spect each other, and the jealousies 
between them, which before the 
war had been so common, had 
greatly diminished. Then, too, 
they had acquired experience in the 
art of war. Moreover, at the close 
of the war the people realized that 
with France driven from the conti- 
nent and Spain confined beyond the Mississippi River, they 
no, longer needed the strong arm of tin 1 mother country for 
protection. Thus they had gained in self-confidence. Up to 
this time, however, the colonies had remained loyal to Eng- 
land. The people considered themselves English. They did 

ion 




Ensign Carhied by New 
England Ships. 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 101 

not wish to be otherwise, though Great Britain had often- 
times severely tried their patience. 

108. Colonial Commerce. — When John Winthrop came 
to Massachusetts Bay, he brought with him one William 
Stephens who, it was said, "would have been a precious jewel 
to any state that obtained him." Stephens was a skilled 
ship-builder and under his guidance the colonists began to 
build vessels of all sizes, some of which were large New Eng- 
enough to carry four hundred tons. The soil of New land Ships. 
England was dry and unfertile, and since the people could 
hardly gain a living from it, of necessity they turned their 
attention to some other mode of livelihood. Accordingly 
New England became the carrier for the colonies and her 
ships were found in every port or moored at the wharves of 
the Southern planters. The vessels took rice, tobacco, tar, 
fine timber, furs, and fish to England, and brought back in 
return all the luxuries for house and dress that could not be 
obtained in America. 

109. Navigation Laws. — As early as 1651 England passed 
the first of the navigation laws, which forbade the colonies 
to trade with any country except England and only in colonial 
or British ships. Other navigation laws followed, each one 
a little more severe than the one before it. In 1663 a law 
was passed which allowed no goods to be brought to America 
except in English ships. This last bore heavily upon all the 
colonies, but especially upon New England. It not only pro- 
hibited her carrying trade, but ruined her ship-building indus- 
tries. The law was considered unjust and was evaded as 
much as possible by the New England captains. 
Virginia, boasting obedience to the laws, declared 

that the New England men broke through and traded to 
any place where their interest led them, but neither small nor 
great vessels were built in her domain. 



102 3SENTIALS OF UNITED STATES BISTORY 

The navigation laws were supplemented by others which 
put heavy duties on both exports and imports. The money 
all came out of the pockets of the colonists and went to enrich 
the English government. 

no. Manufactures. — The Northern and Middle colonies 
attempted various manufactures. Fur hats were fashionable, 
and New York began to make them. England then passed 
a law to protect the British hat makers, forbidding New York 

send her hats either across the Atlantic or to another colony. 

Pennsylvania started iron industries, and England framed 

laws which declared that no mill or other engine 

Restriction f Qr ro i]jng n -on, nor anv furnace for making steel. 

on Colonial , . , . , . , ' , .... . . . 

Industries should be erected m the colonics. \\ ithout a special 
grant from Parliament no out" could make a nail 
or a horse-shoe. Cotton and woolen mills were built in the 
colonies, hut their products could be sold only at home. It 
wmild have been considered piracy to print an English Bible 
in any American colony. 

Though angered by these trade and manufacturing restric- 
tions, all the colonies remained loyal. England, they ad- 
Continued netted, was on l v doing what all European countries 
Loyalty did. It was indeed the universal opinion at the 
of the time that colonies were for the sole purpose of 

Co omsts. benefiting the parent country. If. after the French 
and Indian War, England had tried to hold the love and 
friendship of the colonies, they might perhaps have remained 
a part of the British empire to this day. 

in. The English Theory. — At the close of the war Great 
Britain found herself burdened with a vast debt which must 
be met in some way. Parliament considered that the war 
had been brought on by the colonies and had been waged 
principally for their benefit, and argued that it therefore was 
right and just that they should hear their share of the burden. 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 



103 



Parliament based its assertion on the ground that, in its 
character of a representative government, it had become 
the legislative body for the whole empire; that thus it had 
the power to make the laws for the colonies as well as for 
England, and could levy taxes upon both alike. On this 
point, English and American ideas were so different that 
the American Revolution resulted. 

112. The American Theory. — The colonists claimed that 
by royal grant each colony had a legislature or parliament of 
its own and that the London 
Parliament had no right to 
tax it. If the British govern- 
ment required money from the 
colonies, it must appeal to the 
colonial legislatures, and they 
would raise the needed sum by 
levying taxes upon their people. 
James Otis of Massachusetts, 
quoting Lord Coke, the greatest 
authority on English law, de- 
clared that it was "against the 
franchise of the land for free- 
men to be taxed but by their 
own consent." In this same 
vein the colonists argued that 
taxation and representation 

went together, and that as they personally were not repre- 
sented in the British Parliament they should not be taxed by 
that body. Their point was not that they desired representa- 
tion but that they believed taxation without it both illegal 
and unjust. They determined not to submit to the injustice. 
"Here," said Henry Ward of Rhode Island, "no acts of Par- 
liament can bind, diving up this point is yielding all." 




James < Kns 



104 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



113. The Stamp Act. — In March, 1765, Parliament passed 
what is known as the Stamp Act. 1 This act provided that 
stamped paper must be used for all legal documents, and that 
stamps be placed on playing cards, books, newspapers, and 
pamphlets, and various other articles used in the colonies, and 
that this paper and these stamps must be bought of the 
British government. 

114. Its Effect. — The passage of this act inflamed the 







M J s 

- 
V 







From the painting by Chappel. 

Patrick Henry Addressing the Virginia Burgesses. 

American people in every colony. It was said of Virginia 
that "the whole colony was filled with the utmost consterna- 
tion and astonishment," In the House of Burgesses, Patrick 
Henry, then less than thirty years of age, made a thrilling 
speech against the act and ended with the words, "Tarquin 
and Caesar had each a Brutus; diaries the First, his Crom- 

1 The celebrated William Pitt, the elder, did not favor the Stamp Act. 
When it was first proposed, he said to Sir Robert Walpole, "I will leave 
the taxation of America to some of my successors who have more courage 
than I have. I will not burn my fingers with an American Stamp Act." 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 105 

well; and George the Third" — The speaker of the House 
cried, " Treason, treason! " Then Henry fixed his eyes on the 
chair and added, "may profit by their example." 

Thenceforth the leading men of America had no desire to 
withdraw from the contest. They did not then contemplate 
independence, but they determined to resist the Colonies 
acts of Parliament, and by every means in their resist, 
power to seek to have their grievances redressed. Benjamin 
Franklin wrote to Charles Thompson, "The sun of liberty is 
set; you must light up the candles of industry and economy." 
Mr. Thompson replied that he feared that other lights would be 
the consequence, and predicted the revolution that followed. 

115. The Tax on Tea, Paper, etc. — The Stamp Act, so 
obnoxious to the colonists, was repealed the next year. 
Parliament, however, still insisted on its right to tax the 
colonies, and a little later a new act was passed imposing a 
tax on tea, paper, lead, and one or two other articles. 

116. America's Friends in England. — It must not be 
supposed that the entire people of Great Britain agreed with 
Parliament in its legislation against the colonies; for the facts 
are far otherwise. The course taken by Parliament was in ac- 
cordance with the views and desires of the king and his prime 
minister, Lord North. Many of the leading men in and out 
of Parliament, however, openly and warmly defended America, 
and opposed the hostile acts of the British government. 

When the Stamp Act was under discussion in the House of 
Commons, Charles Townsend made a speech in B 
its favor in which he spoke of the Americans as and Pitt 
"children of our own planting, nourished by our plead for 
indulgence," and "protected by our arms." Im- Colonies - 
mediately Colonel Isaac Barre rose and replied in a burst of 
eloquence that thrilled the whole house. "Children planted 
by your care?" he cried, "No! Your oppressions planted 



106 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

them in America. . . . They nourished by your indulgence? 
They grew by your neglect. . . . They protected by your 
anus? They have nobly taken up arms in your defense. . . . 
The people there are as truly loyal, I believe, as any subjects 
the king has; but a people jealous of their liberties, and who 
will vindicate them, if they should be violated. . . . But 
the subject is too delicate. I will say no more." 

The great statesman, William Pitt, the elder, declared in 
the House of Lords: "I rejoice that America has resisted." 
Lord Camden said: ''The question before your lordships con- 
cerns the common rights of mankind. ... In my opinion, 
my lords, the legislature had no right to make this law" (that 
is, one laying a tax upon America). 

117. British Troops in Boston. — In 1768 a regiment of 
British soldiers, under Colonel Dalryniple, was ordered to 
Boston and was quartered in that town. The British minis- 
try and Parliament , it was evident, were endeavoring to sub- 
due the spiril <>f the colonies, but in vain. Every step taken 
by them had more and more inflamed the patriotism of the 
Americans. 

118. The Boston Riot. — On the 5th of March, 1770, a 
crowd of men and boys, angry at the presence of the redcoats 
in a time of peace, insulted the city guard, and dared the 
soldiers to fire. It was in the evening, and several hundred 
persons had collected in and near King Street, now called 
State Street, just east of the old colonial State House. The 
officer in command, in order to avoid trouble, ordered the 
soldiers into the barracks. 

About nine o'clock the mob gathered round the sentry near 
the Custom House, with sticks and stones, hooting and yelling, 
"Knock him down, kill him, kill him." The captain sent a 
corporal and a squad of six men to protect the sentry. This 
only incensed the men, who gathered near the soldiers and, 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 



107 



with insulting words and tones, dared them to fire. The 
soldiers fired a volley and four persons were killed and five 
wounded, of whom one afterwards died. 

119. Trial of the Soldiers. — The soldiers were arrested and 
tried by the civil law, for murder. John Adams and Josiah 
Quincy, two of the stanchest patriots, defended them. It 
was a notable trial. The accused were the hated British sol- 




painting by Chappel 



The Boston Massa cuv. 



diers. They had killed American citizens. But they were 
with great ability defended by two leading Boston lawyers, 
who believed that the killing was justifiable. Captain Presl 1 >i 1 
and six soldiers were acquitted, and two men were convicted 
and sentenced to light penalties. Thus it was proved that a 
Boston jury could give an impartial verdict, even in the face 
of an inflamed public opinion. 



108 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

120. The Burning of the Gaspee — Alamance. — The ill 
feeling was not confined to Boston. It pervaded all the 
colonies. In the early summer of 1772 the British armed 
schooner Gaspee under command of Lieutenant Dudingston, 
was picketing Narragansett Bay to prevent smuggling, when 
a Providence packet decoyed it into shoal water at high tide 
and ran it aground. In the darkness of the night follow- 
ing, several boat loads of men, some of them leading citizens 
of Providence, rowed down to the schooner, boarded her, 
captured her officers and crew, carried them ashore, and 
burned the vessel. The British government offered a large 
reward for the arrest of any person who participated in the 
affair, but although it was well known who some of them 
were, no information was ever given and no arrests were made. 

In North Carolina the people resisted the royal Governor 
Tryon on account of heavy taxation and foughfmth him the 
battle of Alamance. Tryon won the battle, but the sturdy 
patriots continued their resistance. 

I2i. Parliament removes all Taxes except on Tea. — In the 
year 1770 Lord North became prime minister. He moved 
in the House of Commons that all duties levied in America, 
except thai on tea, be repealed. His motion was carried. 
Nevertheless the Americans refused to buy any tea. The 
English East India Company found itself encumbered with 
a large surplus stock'of tea. To aid this company a new- 
plan was proposed in 1773, which promised to be certain of 
success. It was a carefully prepared scheme to thwart the 
opposition in the colonies. The tax upon tea in the Ameri- 
can colonies was threepence per pound and the East India 
Company paid a heavy duty on all the tea it landed in 
England. The company was permitted to export to America 
its surplus stock free of the duty in England, provided it 
paid the American tax of threepence a pound. This plan 



Tea Tax as 
a Bribe. 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 109 

was thought to be very shrewd. The buyers in America 
would thus be getting their tea lower than the market price 
in England and have no tax to pay. The East India Com- 
pany at once shipped various cargoes of tea to Boston, New 
York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. At Charleston the tea 
was landed and stored in damp cellars, where it Colonists 
was allowed to rot. Not a pound was sold dur- regard the 
ing the war. In Philadelphia and New York the 
captains were persuaded to carry the tea back to 
England. With the Americans the question was not one of 
money but of principle. If the tea was landed and sold, they 
reflected, the British government would receive the tax, 
although it would not be paid directly by the consumers. 

122. The Boston Tea Party. — Late in the fall of 1773 
three vessels loaded with tea anchored in Boston Harbor. 
The citizens held a great meeting in the Old South Church 
(December 16), and voted that the tea be sent back to 
England. The governor, however, refused to allow the ships 
to sail till they had landed their cargo. He would give no 
pass, and the owners of the vessels were unwilling to sail with- 
out one. The people, therefore, took matters into their own 
hands. A cry was heard, the warwhoop sounded, and a com- 
pany of men disguised as Indians, wrapped in blankets and 
each carrying a hatchet, advanced to Griffin's Wharf where 
the tea vessels were lying. They boarded the ships and pro- 
ceeded quietly to their work. No damage was done to the 
vessel, nor was any person molested, but in about three hours 
three hundred and forty chests of tea were broken open and 
the contents poured out into the sea. A multitude of spec- 
tators stood on the shore watching the bold proceeding, and 
when the work was done all returned to their homes and the 
city again resumed its quiet. 

123. The Peggy Stewart. At Annapolis, Maryland, 



110 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



lived a Scotchman named Anthony Stewart. ( >ne of his ves- 
sels, the Peggy Stewart, laden with tea, sailed in October, 
1771, into the harbor of Annapolis, then one of the most 
important seaports in America. The men of .Maryland were 
just as determined and jusl as patriotic as those of Boston. 
They would not allow the tea to be landed. They even went 
further than the Boston patriots had gone. A company of 
young men, handed together as the Whig Club, rode into 




The Stewart House at Annapolis. 



Annapolis on the morning of October 19. On their hats 
was the motto, "Liberty and Independence, or Death." 
They went to the house of Anthony Stewart, erected a rude 
"•allows, and their leader, Dr. Charles A. Warlield, gave -Mr. 
Stewart his choice, in these words: "You must either go 
with me and apply the torch to your own vessel, or hang 
before your own door." Stewart chose the former course 
and was forthwith marched down to Windmill Point, where 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 111 

he was compelled to set fire to the vessel loaded with the 
obnoxious tea. 

Thus North and South alike resisted the attempt of the 
British Parliament to tax the colonies. 

124. The First Continental Congress. — During the sum- 
mer of 1773 Committees of Correspondence were appointed 
in all the colonies, so that whatever was going on in any colony 
became quickly known from New Hampshire to Georgia. 
Next, measures were taken to call a Continental Congress 
to consider what the colonies should do at this critical period. 
The first Continental Congress met in Carpenter's Hall, Phila- 
delphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. It was composed of 
fifty-five delegates representing all the colonies except 
Georgia, who, on her part, promised to unite with the other 
colonies in the "effort to maintain their right to the British 
constitution." John Adams, in a letter written while the 
Congress was still in session, describing that body, called it 
"an assembly such as never before came together, on a sudden, 
in any part of the world." 

After a long and spirited discussion, Congress adopted a 
Declaration of Rights in which it declared that the colonies 
were "entitled to life, liberty, and property"; that their emi- 
gration from England did not take away from them Declaration 
their rights as Englishmen ; and that "they were en- of Rights, 
titled to a free and exclusive power of legislation" in re- 
gard to taxation and all internal matters. The Congress 
furthermore claimed that the acts of Parliament had violated 
the rights of the colonies and that harmony between England 
and America could be restored only by their repeal, and it 
agreed to stop all imports and exports from Great Britain. 
The members then adjourned until the following May when, 
it was hoped, an answer from the king would be received. 

All votes in this and the subsequent Congress were taken 



112 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATUS HISTORY 



by colonics, each colony having one vote. Doubtless this 
united action was of advantage in that it helped to bind the 
colonies together, but it was apparently without effect on 
the British government. 

125. Who first foresaw Revolution. — As time went on, 
it began to dawn upon first one and then another that a revo- 
lution, calculated to bring about a complete separation from 
Great Britain, was inevitable. It is impossible now to say 

with certainty who first per- 
ceived that this revolution 
must come. The people 
were slow to consider seri- 
ously that they must break 
from the mother country. 
They wanted to be loyal sub- 
jects of the king. James 
Otis, Samuel Adams, and 
Joseph Hawley in Massachu- 
setts, and Patrick Henry of 
Virginia, were probably the 
first men to see clearly that 
there was no solution to the 
problem but independence. 
Joseph Hawley wrote : "Aft er 
all, we must fight." When these words were read in the 
hearing of Patrick Henry, he exclaimed, "I am of that man's 
opinion." George Washington himself now realized that 
parchment measures would be useless. 1 

1 A pamphlet, written by Thomas Paine, called "Common Sense," was 
issued early in the year 177(> with the approval of Benjamin Franklin and 
Samuel Adams. It boldly asserted that the Americans ought to separate en- 
tirely from Great Britain, and set up a government of their own. This pro- 
duction was read everywhere. It is said that over 1 ()().()()() copies were sold. 
It did much to make the Revolution possible and to hasten its coming. 




Patrick Henry, 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 



113 



126. Leslie at Salem. — General Gage was made governor of 
Massachusetts and was ordered to Boston with four regiments 
of British regulars to awe the people into submission. Early 
in 1775 Gage assumed the aggressive. He heard that powder 
and cannon were secreted at Salem, and sent Colonel Leslie 
with three hundred sol- 
diers to capture any mili- 
tary stores to be found 
there. On Sunday morn- 
ing, February 26, 1775, 
Leslie sailed out of Boston 
harbor and arrived at 
Marblehead about noon. 
The object of the expedi- 
tion was at once suspected 
by the patriots of Marble- 
head, and Major John 
Pedrick mounted his 
horse and rode to Salem 
to warn the people. Di- 
vine service was being 
held in the several 
churches, but when Major 
Pedrick announced the 
approach of the soldiers, 
the congregations were instantly dismissed. 

It had been reported to the English that Colonel David 
Mason was mounting beyond the North River some old can- 
non captured from the French in the recent war. Colonel 
Leslie, therefore, rapidly marched to the drawbridge over the 
river. On arriving at the bridge he found a large number of 
men already there and the draw raised. He ordered the 
draw down, but his command was defied. There was then 




A Powder House near Boston. 

Used by the colonists in 1775 and 1770. 



114 ESSENTIALS OF INITED STATES HISTORY 

danger of immediate conflict. Leslie threatened to fire. 
Colonel Timothy Pickering, who was in command of the 

Salem militia, warned him that if he opened fire not one of his 
men would leave town alive. The delay had already given 
time to secrete the cannon, and Reverend Thomas Barnard, 
pastor of the North Church, succeeded in making a com- 
promise. The agreement was that the draw should be lowere* 1 
and that Leslie be permitted to march his men thirty rods 
beyond the bridge, but only on his word of honor as a man 
and a soldier that he would then countermarch and return 
with his forces to Boston. This was done, and thus blood- 
shed was averted. Here at Salem, then, was the first armed 
The First resistance to British soldiers, and but for the tact 
Armed and skill of Mr. Barnard, here would probably have 
Resistance. j xieR tne m>s ^ bloodshed of the Revolution, instead 
of a little later at Lexington. 

127. Lexington and Concord. — Nevertheless Gage was 
determined that the people should not arm themselves nor 
secure ammunition. He sent his spies to neighboring towns, 
and through them he learned in April that the patriots were 
about to remove some military stores from Concord to Groton. 
On the evening of April 18, eight hundred regulars, the 
pride of Gage's army, with great secrecy crossed the Charles 
River beyond the Common and took up their march for Con- 
cord. Their movement, however, became known to the 
patriots. The troops had scarcely passed Boston Common 
when William Dawes galloped across the neck to Roxbury, 
and on through Brookline, Brighton, and Wafertown to Lex- 
ington; at the same time, Paul Revere, who was waiting for 
the signal with his horse ready saddled, started from Charles- 
town and took the northern road through Somerville and 
Medford to Lexington. Both men warned the inhabitants 
along the road, from farmhouse to farmhouse, that the 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 



115 



Lexington. 



¥^~~ 



v^... ^ { \ T 



regulars were coming. In the early morning of April 19, 1775, 
the British troops, under command of Lieutenant Colonel 
Smith and Major Pitcairn, arrived at Lexington, 
about twelve miles from Boston. There they 
found a small company of minute-men and citizens, about 
seventy in all, a motley group, and perhaps forty spectators 
without arms. Major Pitcairn led the advance. He halted 
his troops at the Green, and riding around the meeting-house, 
with a drawn sword in one hand and a pistol in the other, he 
shouted, "Dis- 
perse, you rebels. 
Throw down your 
arms and dis- 
perse." No one 
obeyed. He then 
rode on a little 
farther, discharged 
his pistol, flour- 
ished his sword, 
and ordered his sol- 
diers to fire. Seven Americans were killed and eight wounded. 
The patriots scattered, but kept up an irregular firing. 

The British then pursued their way to Concord, a distance 
of six or eight miles. HereThe people, having had full infor- 
mation of their approach, were found drawn up 
for defense. Observing that the regulars were too 
numerous, they retired across the bridge, and waited for rein- 
forcements. The soldiers proceeded to execute their commis- 
sion. They destroyed several cannon, carriages, wheels, and 
limbers. They threw five hundred pounds of ball into the 
river, and destroyed fifty or sixty barrels of flour. The 
militia, now being reenforced, advanced under the command 
of Major Buttrick. The British retired across the bridge, 




Thk Campaign around Boston, 1775-76. 



Concord. 



116 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



and then fired upon the patriots. The lire was returned 
with such vigor that the regulars were forced to retreat, 
with a loss of several killed and wounded and sonic prisoners. 
128. The Retreat to Boston. — They continued their re- 
treat to Lexington. There they were joined by Lord Percy 
with one thousand men and two cannon, hut they made no 
further aggressive movements. The entire force returned 




The Retheat of the British from Concord. 

to Boston without delay. They were fired upon from behind 
stone walls and fences, and were constantly harassed through 
the entire march. The loss of the British army during the 
day was, killed, wounded, and missing, two hundred and 
seventy-three; of the Americans, eighty-eight. Thus hostili- 
ties were commenced. The Revolution, which was to end in 
the independence of America, had begun. 

129. Effect of the Battle upon the Country. — That had 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 117 

come which Patrick Henry predicted when he said: "The 
next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears 
the clash of resounding arms." The poet Emerson, years 
afterwards, sang the great significance of this "clash": — 

" By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 
Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
And fired the shot heard round the world." 

It is indeed difficult to estimate the effect of this battle 
upon the people in all the colonies near and far. The news 
of it spread like wildfire. The entire American people, from 
New Hampshire to Georgia, were inflamed with enmity against 
England. Israel Putnam left his plow in the fur- universal 
row and hastened to Cambridge. Colonel Stark, Enmity 
from New Hampshire, brought his militia to Massa- against 
chusetts. A single month had not passed before ng an 
twenty thousand men were encamped near Boston. At 
Savannah, Georgia, a band of men broke open the powder- 
house, captured the powder, and secreted it for future use. 
The patriots in New Jersey took possession of the treasury 
containing one hundred thousand dollars and appropriated 
it for the payment of troops. At Charlotte, Mecklenburg 
County, North Carolina, the people, on the 31st of May, made 
the first declaration of independence. Doings similar to 
these took place all over the thirteen colonies. 

130. Reinforcements for the British Army. — On the 25th 
of May the Cerberus arrived at Boston bringing large rein- 
forcements, with Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, so 
that the entire British army in Boston numbered more than 
ten thousand men. The patriotic Provincial Congress of 
Massachusetts voted that "an army of thirty thousand men 
be raised immediately." In Rhode Island a brigade of three 
regiments, with a train of artillery, was placed under the 



118 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HIST0R1 



command of ( reneral Nathanael Greene. The army of twenty 

thousand men around Boston was set to work building en- 
trenchments to shut up the British army in that city. 

131. Battle of Bunker Hill. — The Massachusetts Com- 
mittee of Safety undertook to raise defenses on Dorchester 
Heights on the south and on Hunker Hill on the north. Colonel 
Prescott was charged with fortifying Hunker Hill. On the 
night of June 16, 1775, with one thousand men, in the quiet 
of the midnight darkness, he marked out the entrenchments, 
and at dawn, June 17, a redoubt about eight rods square 

had been thrown up. 




Directly opposite, in 

the channel, was 

anchored the British 

ship Lively. When 

the captain of the 

Lively came on deck, 

just after daylight, 

he was surprised to 

find the newly made 

Yankee breastworks 

frowning down upon 
The Vicinitt of Boston. h[]n frf)m fche sum . 

mil of the hill, and at once he ordered his men to open fire 
upon the fort. 

At almost the same time the British artillery on Copp's 
Hill began a discharge across the channel, and continued it 
during the entire forenoon. In the afternoon a strong 
British force of fully three thousand men was landed at 
the foot of the hill. Forming into two linos under com- 
mand of Generals Howe and Pigot, the men began their 
advance up the hill. The patriots were commanded by 
Colonel Prescott. Colonel Stark directed the New Ilamp- 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 



119 



shire forces, and Captain Knowlton the company from Con- 
necticut. General Warren, General Pomeroy, and General 
Putnam were all on the field, helping and encouraging wher- 
ever needed.. The Americans reserved their ammunition 
until the regulars were close at hand. Then the order to fire 
was given, and they poured forth their shot with such sure 
and successful aim upon the British infantry that they mowed 
them down in ranks. The advancing column broke and fled. 

Once more, rallied by their of- 
ficers, the army steadily moved 
forward to the assault. Again 
it was driven back by the same 
murderous fire. Then General 
Clinton arrived with reinforce- 
ments, and for the third time the 
British regulars marched up the 
hill against this Yankee force of 
Retreat undisciplined yeomen, 
of the The Americans had ex- 

Americans, hausted their ammuni- 
tion and were obliged to retreat. 
They retired in good order across 
Charlestown Neck to Prospect Hill. 
Here they fortified themselves. 
The British, on their part, wantonly burned Charlestown, 
destroying three hundred houses and two hundred other 
buildings. 

The British lost over a thousand men and the Americans 
less than half that number. The patriots, however, were 
greatly saddened by the death of General Joseph Losses in 
Warren, who was shot in the head and killed in- the Battle. 
stantly. Among the losses on the British side was Major 
Pitcairn, who had led the regulars at Lexington. In the 




Colonel William Prescott. 

From the statue on Bunker Hill. 



120 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

decisive battle of Quebec, which practically closed the French 
and Indian War, not so many British officers were killed as in 
this little skirmish with the farmers of New England. 

132. Results of the Battle. — Thus four thousand trained 
and disciplined British regulars, after being twice repulsed by 
less than fifteen hundred raw militia, had succeeded in cap- 
turing a slightly fortified redoubt only because the ammu- 
nition, of the defenders had been exhausted. The English 
government and people now had a clearer idea of the great- 
ness of the task which they had undertaken. General Gage 
at once saw that it would be difficult to subdue the Americans. 
He wrote to Lord Dartmouth: "The rebels are not the 
despicable rabble whom many have supposed them to be. 
The conquest of this country is not easy." The colonies, on 
their part, encouraged by their success, were inspired with 
fresh zeal to carry forward the contest. General Ward, in an 
order to the troops, said, "We shall finally come off victorious, 
and triumph over the enemies of freedom and America." 1 
Dr. Franklin wrote to his English friends, "The Americans 
will fight, and England has lost her colonies forever." 2 

1 Not long since a gentleman from Boston visiting in Quebec was 
shown a small cannon, and was told, "We captured this from you at 
Bunker Hill." "All right," replied the American, "you have the cannon, 
but we have the hill." 

2 General Howe's order to burn Charlestown aroused the indignation 
of Dr. Franklin. In London Franklin had made the acquaintance of a 
very intelligent gentleman, Mr. William Strahan, like himself a printer, 
and in 1775 a member of Parliament. Between the two men a strong 
friendship had arisen. Soon after the battle of Bunker Hill, Franklin 
wrote Strahan a letter which has become famous. Indignant as Franklin 
was at the conduct of General Howe in burning the town, yet, after the war 
was over and peace had been declared between the two countries, Frank- 
lin renewed his acquaintance with Mr. Strahan, and they enjoyed a friendly 
confidence till death interrupted it. A copy of this letter was procured 
from Strahan soon after it was received and was printed in the English 
newspapers. 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 121 



' <7<rp-rrvZ<> *^^^f^-t^n^-i^ ~Z<> i^<^ 




-^ — -,/j? 




Franklin's Letter to Mr. Strahan. 

133. Washington, Commander-in-Chief. — Meanwhile the 
Second Continental Congress had met in Philadelphia. It 
voted to raise an army of twenty thousand men and to issue 
bills of credit to the amount of three million dollars. Massa- 
chusetts requested Congress to organize a Continental Army, 



122 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



and John Adams suggested George Washington as com- 
mander-in-chief. Accordingly, Washington was chosen by 
ballot on the loth of June, 1775, and commissioned in the 
name of the United Colonies. As the main army was centered 
around Boston, Washington went there. He arrived at 
Cambridge on the 2d of July, and on the very next day, "at 
about nine o'clock in the morning, Washington, with several 

of the general officers, 
went on foot (not 
mounted, as often rep- 
resented) to the elm still 
standing by the edge of 
Cambridge Common. 
There he said a few 
words to the assembled 
troops, and drawing his 
sword took command of 
the Continental Army," l 
a little band of strag- 
gling fanners, dressed in 
homespun of varied col- 
ors and texture. Cheers 
and shouts immediately 
followed, and the boom- 
ing of cannon told the 
story to the enemy in 
Boston. Washington, 
tall, strong, and well proportioned, was at the time forty- 
three years of age. "He wore a blue broadcloth coat, buff 
smallclothes, silk stockings, and cocked hat." 

134. The British Army leaves Boston. — In March, 1776, 
Washington fortified Dorchester Heights by night. The 
1 Quoted from Henry Cabot Lodge. 




From the painting !>> 

General Washington in Command 



THE COLONIES ALIENATED 123 

astonishment of Lord Howe can only be imagined when in 
the morning he beheld these new entrenchments overlooking 
Boston and threatening his forces. He then remembered 
too late that he had been advised by General Clinton to pos- 
sess and fortify this commanding position, and was bitterly 
mindful of the fact that once before, at Bunker Hill, the 
Americans had stolen a march upon him. On that occasion 
he had promptly attacked the new fortifications, but now he 
dared not risk an advance. He instead decided to leave the 
city. On the 17th of March, 1776, his army, his fleet, and 
many loyalists sailed away for Halifax, and the American 
troops, marching from Roxbury, or crossing the Charles 
River from Cambridge, entered Boston. The British in their 
haste had left several hundred cannon, many horses, bedding, 
and soldiers' clothing, and thousands of bushels of wheat, bar- 
ley, and oats. 

135. Trend towards Independence. — Early in 1776 a 
growing sentiment of independence was manifest throughout 
the colonies. In South Carolina, on the 23d of 
April, the chief justice charged the Grand Jury in Authority 
these words: "The law of the land authorizes me denied in 
to declare, — and it is my duty to declare the law, South 
— that George the Third, King of Great Britain, 
has abdicated the government, that he has no authority 
over us and we owe no obedience to him." 

Rhode Island passed an act, May 4, actually declaring 
herself independent of Great Britain. This act provided that 
all commissions for officers and all writs and pro- Rh , 
cesses in law should be made out in the name and island's Act 
by the authority of "the Governor and the Com- oi Inde - 
pany of the English Colony of Rhode Island and P endence - 
Providence Plantations. . . . That the Courts of Law be no 
longer entitled nor considered as the King's Courts, and that 



124 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



no instrument in writing . . . shall mention the year of the 
said King's reign." It was furthermore enacted that the 
time-honored words, "God save the King," be changed to 

the expression, "God save the 
United Colonies." 

On the 6th of May the House 
of Burgesses in Virginia, in ses- 
sion at Williamsburg, voted 
that inasmuch as "the an- 
cient constitution had been 
subverted by the yirginialn- 
King and Parliament dependent 
of Great Britain, the of the 
House now dis- 
solve." In this dissolution of 
the Virginia House the last 
vestige of the king's authority 
passed away from that colony. 
A few days before, Joseph Hawley of Massachusetts wrote: 
"For God's sake let there be a full revolution. Independence 
and a well-planned Continental Government will save us." 





Jfi "^ 




'if 






w 




pPl 



King George III. 



SUMMARY 

The colonists had continued in their loyalty to England, 
though Parliament had frequently angered them by passing 
laws that restricted their commerce and manufactures. The 
French and Indian wars had left England with a great debt on 
her hands. In order to raise money to pay this debt, Parlia- 
ment determined to tax the colonies and passed the Stamp Act. 
The colonies claimed that this was unlawful since they were 
not represented in Parliament. 

The Stamp Act was shortly repealed, but a tax on tea and 
other articles was then levied. The colonies refused to use 
the tea, and when the shipmasters would not return it to 
England they destroyed it. A Continental Congress framed 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 125 

a declaration of rights and sent a petition to the king. Many- 
Americans were beginning to think that a separation between 
the colonies and Great Britain was the only means of outcome 
from their difficulties. 

General Gage sent a detachment of troops to Salem to seize 
some cannon. The expedition was unsuccessful and returned 
to Boston without bloodshed. Then Gage sent a force to 
Lexington and Concord and the Revolution began. 

A colonial army was collected and the battle of Bunker Hill 
was fought. In the meanwhile the Continental Congress ap- 
pointed as commander-in-chief of the American forces George 
Washington, who fortified Dorchester Heights. The British 
army, seeing his strong position, evacuated Boston. 

— ^ — 

CHAPTER XI 

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 

136. Independence Declared. — Up to this time the col- 
onists had been contending for a redress of grievances, but 
had failed. They would have preferred to remain loyal sub- 
jects, could they have done so and retained their rights. 
But despairing of justice from the king and Parliament, they 
saw no way of defending their liberties but to establish a new 
and independent government. 

Early in June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, in accordance 
with instructions from the Virginia Convention, introduced 
into the Continental Congress a resolution that Resolutions 
"these United Colonies are, and of right ought to for Inde- 
be, free and independent States; and that all politi- pendence. 
cal connection between them and the state of Great Britain 
is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The resolution was 
adopted June 11, and two committees were appointed, one 
to prepare a Declaration of Independence, and the other to 
prepare Articles of Confederation. The committee on the 



126 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Declaration consisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, 
John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Penn- 
sylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. 

Livingston of 
New York. The 
document was 
drawn up by .Jef- 
ferson, and re- 
vised with merely 
a few changes by 
A (1 a m s and 
Franklin. The 
committee sub- 
mitted its report 
on the 28th of 
June, and it was 
thereupon agreed 
that final action 
should be taken 
on the first day 
of July. On that 
day the resolu- 
tion was dis- 
Jeffehsox Reading to the Committee the First cussed ill the 
Draft of the Declaration. committee of the 

whole; John Adams made a strong argument in its favor, and 
John Dickinson of Pennsylvania spoke in opposition, claim- 
ing that the measure was premature. Two thirds of the 
colonies, represented in the committee of the whole, voted 
for the resolution, and final action was deferred till the next 
day, July 2. 

The declaration closed with the words: "And for the sup- 
port of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protec- 




THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 127 



tion of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." It The Vote 
was solemnly understood by the framers that if this for the 
resolution was adopted, " to secede would be infamy, " Decla - 

ration 

and to persist might be destruction." The mo- 
ment was critical and of vast 
importance. New York was 
unable to vote, but, on the 
fourth of July, 1776, twelve 
colonies, without a dissension, 
adopted and agreed to sup- 
port the "Declaration of the 
Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress 
assembled." After the vote, 
some one remarked, "Well, 
now we must all hang to- 
gether," to which Dr. Frank- 
lin ironically replied, " Yes, or 
we shall all hang separately." 

The declaration was signed 
by the president and secretary 
of the Congress and was then given to the world. 1 

137. The Declaration Proclaimed. — The bell which later 

1 An interesting incident is told by Dr. Prime, the biographer, of Pro- 
fessor Samuel F. B. Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph. Dr. 
Prime says that Mr. Morse was in the studio of the celebrated painter, 
Benjamin West, in London, and was examining a portrait, when West 
told him that it was a portrait of King George III. " Did the king sit 
here for it?" asked Morse. The painter answered him in the affirmative 
and said: "One day the king was sitting to me for that portrait when a 
box containing the American Declaration of Independence was handed 
to him." "Indeed?" said Morse, "and what appeared to be the emo- 
tions of the king? What did he say?" "Well, sir," answered Mr. West, 
"he made a reply characteristic of the goodness of his heart. He said, 




The Liberty Bell. 



128 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

rang out the news to the people, and which is still preserved 
The Liberty in the same building where the Declaration of In- 
Bel1 - dependence was adopted, bears at its base in raised 

letters these words, "Proclaim liberty throughout the land 
unto all the inhabitants thereof." It was secreted during 
the war while the British army held Philadelphia, and was 
afterwards restored to its place. There it has remained for 
more than a century, except when exhibited elsewhere on 
special occasions. 1 

138. The United States of America. — Thenceforth the 
thirteen British colonies were colonies no longer. Instead 
they were the United States of America. The internal 
affairs of each of the states were to be controlled by the states 
themselves, each attending to its own affairs only, while all 
foreign matters relating to various nations, and internal affairs 
of common interest were to be in the hands of a federal con- 
gress, composed of representatives from every state. 

139. New York the First Strategic Point. — The war was 
now between the powerful nation of Great Britain and a young 
republic. The royal troops had left Boston. It next became 
their plan to seize upon the most important strategic point, 
which manifestly was the mouth of the Hudson River. By 
controlling the Hudson and separating New England from 
the other colonies, they could seriously weaken the chances 
of American success. They believed that once in possession 
of New York they could attack Boston or Philadelphia with 
hope of success. 

'Well, if they can be happier under the government they have chosen 
than under mine, I shall he happy.' " 

1 It was loaned hy the state of Pennsylvania to the New Orleans Cotton 
Exposition in 1884; to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893; 
to the Atlantic Exposition in 1895; to Charleston, South Carolina, in 
1902; to Boston in 1903; and to St. Louis in 1904. At all times the bell 
has heen carefully guarded and promptly returned to its home. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 129 

To accomplish this purpose, General Howe from Halifax, 
Admiral Howe from England, and General Clinton from the 
South brought their united armies to the mouth of the 
Hudson. 

140. The British Plan Forestalled by Washington. — Gen- 
eral Washington had, however, anticipated their designs. As 
soon as the British army left Boston he began to prepare New 
York for defense. He ordered that vessels be sunk in the 
channel near the mouth of the river, and that as the enemy's 
ships attempted an entrance, a cross-fire from Fort Washing- 
ton on the New York side and Fort Lee on the Jersey 
shore be directed upon them. On the hills of Brooklyn 
General Greene planted cannon and raised fortifications to 
prevent the British ships from passing up the Hudson. 

The British thus opposed, finding that they could not sail 
their ships up the Hudson River, finally landed an army, 
thirty thousand strong, on the southwest corner of Long 
Island. The patriot army was scarcely half the The Two 
size and was divided, a part in Brooklyn under Armies 
General Greene and the rest along the Hudson in Unevenly 
New York. Furthermore, it should be reflected 
that Washington's army was composed of raw recruits, 
while the British army, under the command of experi- 
enced officers, was made up of professional soldiers from 
Europe. 

141. The Battle of Long Island. — The British generals 
resolved to attack the Americans on the heights of Brooklyn. 
If they could capture General Greene's command and turn 
their cannon upon New York, they believed they could 
drive Washington out of the city. General Greene was ill, 
and the command fell upon General Putnam. Before Gen- 
eral Putnam could be reached, however, the British had first 
to meet four thousand men, under General Sullivan, who 



130 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Taken 
Prisoner. 



guarded the approaches to the Brooklyn fortifications. As 
the English force advanced, General Sullivan marched out 
General anc * £ ave ' 3at ^ e - The British, by their superior 
Sullivan numbers, were able to surround the patriots, and 
captured more than a thousand prisoners, includ- 
ing General Sullivan. Colonel Smallwood's regi- 
ment from Maryland distinguished itself in several brave 

charges. The men were 
struck down in heaps, but 
they held the English army 
in check and helped the 
retreat of the Americans 
which followed. 

This was on August 27, 
177G. The British officers 
confidently expected to 
make an easy capture the 
next day of General Put- 
nam and his army on 
Brooklyn Heights. Wash- 
ington saw the danger and 
he also saw his oppor- 
tunity. That night a dense 
fog came up on The 

the Island, while Americans 
it remained clear retreat in 
on the New York a Fog - 
side. In the darkness of the night he directed the retreat of 
the entire force by boats from Brooklyn across the river to 
New York. In the morning Howe found only the "nest of 
rebels" on the heights of Brooklyn; the birds had flown. 
Before the last boat-loads had landed on the New York side, 
the fog cleared off and the British could be distinctly seen 




General Israel Putnam. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 131 

taking possession of the American works. This skillful re- 
treat, almost in the presence of the enemy yet concealed 
from them, was a brilliant military achievement. 1 

142. Operations at New York and Vicinity. — Howe tried 
for the next two months to draw the American army into a 
disadvantageous engagement. But he found Washington 
wily and tactful. The English general moved his army 
across from Long Island to Manhattan Island, and attempted 
to turn Washington's left flank. Thereupon Washington 
extended his lines to White Plains. Here, on the 28th of 
October, a battle occurred between a part of the American 
army and a portion of the British troops. The Americans 
in consequence fell back and took up a strong position at 
North Castle. Howe deemed it best not to attack. Wash- 
ington left General Charles Lee in command at North Castle, 
and made his headquarters at Fort Lee, in New Jersey. 
General Howe (November 17) attacked Fort Washington, 
and after a stubborn resistance captured the fort. Capture of 
The British lost one thousand men in the engage- FortWash- 
ment, but they secured nearly three thousand m S ton - 
prisoners. This affair at Fort Washington was a most dis- 
heartening blow to our little army and would have discouraged 
a commander less brave and resourceful than Washington. 
The fort had been garrisoned, by order of Congress, contrary 
to the judgment of Washington. 

143. Lee's Disobedience. — Washington was now on the 
Jersey side of the Hudson with about seven thousand troops, 

1 It is related that when the Americans began the movement across 
the East River to Manhattan, a Tory's wife sent her slave to notify the 
British. He was arrested by a Hessian sentinel, who could not under- 
stand a word of English, and kept in the guard-house until morning. 
Then he was examined by a British officer who, on hearing his story, at 
once dispatched a few of the guard to learn the facts. The last boats of 
the Americans were just gaining the New York shore. 



132 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and General Charles Lee was in command of about as 
many at North Castle, on the east side of the river. 1 
Washington saw that Howe 
was planning an expedition 
against Philadelphia, and he 
determined to direct his march 
through New Jersey and inter- 
cept the enemy. He ordered 
Lee to cross the river with his 
full force and join him. Lee 
crossed to Morristown and 
halted. He was cap- 
tured there, in the 
night, at a tavern 
outside of his army 
lines, and taken to 
New York. It was 
afterwards learned 




The Campaigns in New York and New Jersey. 



that he gave to General Howe important information as to 
Washington and the American army. Sullivan was placed in 

'Charles Lee was a British adventurer. He had been in the British 
army, but had come to America and entered Washington's command. 
He had obtained the rank of major-general. While serving under Wash- 
ington he wrote letters full of prejudice against him. He was in no way 
connected with the Lees of Virginia. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 133 

command of Lee's forces, and he promptly marched onward 
and joined Washington. He arrived none too soon. 

144. Washington crosses the Delaware. — The moment 
had come for Washington to make a bold stroke. On Christ- 
mas night, 1776, with about twenty-five hundred men, he 
crossed the Delaware, which was full of floating ice. Gen- 
eral Rodney wrote, it was "as severe a night as I ever 
saw. The frost was sharp, the current difficult to stem, the 
ice increasing, the wind high, and at eleven it began to 
snow." Undaunted by these obstacles, the little force 
gained the farther bank, and at four o'clock in the morning, 
in a fierce snowstorm, started on their nine miles' march to 
meet the enemy at Trenton. The British force was com- 
posed of Hessian 1 troops, who felt themselves secure. The 
surprise of these Hessians was complete. The engagement 
was short and sharp, and the result, victory for the patriots. 
The American loss was two killed and three wounded. The 
Hessian loss was forty killed and wounded, and one thousand 
prisoners. On the night of the 26th the American army 
with its prisoners, arms, and ammunition recrossed the Dela- 
ware into Pennsylvania. 

145. The Battle of Princeton. — With this turn of affairs 
Washington's army forgot its discouragements. Great joy 
was felt throughout the country. Even the faint-hearted 
took courage. The British, on their part, were bitterly 
depressed. For a few days Washington remained inactive 
and rested his men. Then on New Year's day he again 

1 King George was unable to get enough English soldiers to put down the 
rebellion in the colonies. He therefore hired troops from a number of 
the German princes. As most of them came from Hesse-Cassel, they were 
generally called Hessians. The king made a great mistake in hiring these 
mercenaries. Many thousands of the colonists who had previously been 
lukewarm in supporting the demand for independence now openly fa- 
vored it. 



134 



ESSENTIALS OF EXITED STATES HISTORY 



crossed the Delaware and took up his position at Trenton with 
a force of five thousand men. The very next day Lord Corn- 
wallis appeared. The English general thought that he had 
Washington and his army "bottled up" between Trenton 
and the river. The Delaware was so full of ice, he argued, 
that the Americans could not possibly cross it. He was con- 
fident that the next day would bring him success and deliver 
Washington and his entire army into his hands. He was to 
"bag the old fox" this time without doubt. During the night 
Washington quietly moved his army around the enemy's 
flank and took up a strong position at Princeton. Here 
he suddenly attacked the British force. The action was 
short but decisive, and resulted in another victory for the 
Americans. 1 The "old fox" had outwitted Cornwallis. 
146. Winter Quarters. — Washington now moved his 

army to the outlying hills of 
Morristown, where it went into 
winter quarters. During the 
next few months he sent out 
several expeditions, and soon 
recovered the greater part of 
New Jersey, which had so lately 
been overrun by the British and 
Hessians. 

By this time many of the 
terms of enlistment had actually 

expired, and the condition of 
Robert Morris. ' 

the army was almost desperate. 
Congress was powerless to raise money. A few wealthy 




1 Frederick the Great of Prussia, one of the most skillful generals of 
modern times, is said to have pronounced Washington's operations, in 
the three weeks ending with Princeton, "the most brilliant in military 
history." 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 135 



persons, however, contributed liberally. 1 Thus the soldiers 
were paid and many of them re-enlisted. Before spring (1777) 
the American army was larger than ever before, Condition 
stronger, more hopeful, and under a better state of the 
of discipline. Meanwhile the Continental Congress Arm y- 
passed a very important act, giving full military power to 
General Washington. This, with other circumstances, strength- 
ened the cause of the United States and gave confidence to 
Washington and the army. _ 

147. Help from Europe. — The next summer the Marquis 
de Lafayette came over from Paris 

and offered his services to General 
Washington. Congress made him 
major-general, and Washington at- 
tached him to the staff. De Kalb, 
a German soldier, Baron Steuben, 2 
a Prussian military engineer, and 
Kosciusko and Pulaski, two Polish 
patriots, joined our army that same 
year. All these volunteers from 
Europe rendered great service. 

148. Capture of General Pres- 
cott. — The commanding officer of the British forces in Rhode 




Marquis de Lafayette. 



1 Washington wrote an urgent letter to Robert Morris, who was a mem- 
ber of the Committee of Ways and Means in Congress. In one day Morris 
raised $50,000 and sent it to Washington. Shortly afterwards Morris was 
made Superintendent of Finance. He had a genius for raising money, and 
often borrowed large sums on his own personal account. His generous 
and efficient aid helped greatly towards the success of the Revolution. 

2 Baron Steuben drilled the army at Valley Forge and brought it to a 
high state of discipline and military tactics; De Kalb was made major- 
general, and was killed at the battle of Camden; Pulaski fell, gallantly 
fighting, before Savannah; Kosciusko ( kos-sl-us'ko) was a noted engineer 
and erected the military works at West Point. After the war he returned 
to die fighting for freedom in his native land. 



136 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Island was General Prescott. He had his headquarters at a 

farmhouse four miles north of Newport in the town of Ports- 
mouth. On the night of July 20, 1777, Colonel William 
Barton, with six trusty officers and thirty-four men, rowed 
across Narragansett Bay, anchored their boats, and stole 
silently through the fields to the house, nearly a mile from 
the shore; they surrounded it, captured the guard, and burst 
open the doors. They took the general and his aid, Major 
William Barrington, and hurried them half-dressed to the 
boats, and rowing past the stern of the British guard-ship 
returned to Warwick, on the west side of the bay. Soon 
afterwards, Prescott was exchanged for General Charles Lee, 
who had been captured seven months before. 1 

149. Howe sails for Philadelphia. — During the summer of 
1777, Howe held his army in New York and its vicinity, trying 
to entrap Washington into a hazardous position. But the 
American general was as wary and alert as ever Fabius was. 2 

1 The two following anecdotes are told of this capture: 

After entering the house, Colonel Barton found the general's bedroom 
door locked. A negro named Jack Sisson, in the service of the Americans. 
stepped back some distance, and bending down ran forward, breaking in 
the door with his head. 

After reaching the boat and rowing away, General Prescott remarked 
to Colonel Barton, "You have made a bold push to-night, Colonel." "We 
have done what we could, General," was the reply. 

2 The Fabius here referred to was a great Roman general who lived 
two hundred years before Christ. He was named Quintius Fabius Maxi- 
mus Verrucosus, Cunctator. " Maximus" is the Latin word for "greatest" 
and "Cunctator" means "the delayer," and refers to his ability to avoid 
an engagement when the chances were not good. Fabius commanded 
the Roman army against the Carthaginians under Hannibal in the second 
Punic War. "Hanging on the heights like a thundercloud, to which 
Hannibal compared him, and avoiding a direct engagement, he tantalized 
the enemy with his caution, harassed them by marches and counter- 
marches, and cut off their stragglers and foragers, while at the same time 
his delay allowed Rome to assemble her forces in greater strength." — 
Internut tonal Encyclopedia, 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 137 



Howe then attempted a march across New Jersey to attack 
Philadelphia, but Washington managed to worry him and 
to delay his movements to such an extent that Howe was 
forced to return with 
his army to New York. 
There he met the fleet 
under the command 
of his brother, Lord 
Howe, and embarked 
with eighteen thou- 
sand men. Finding 
the Delaware River 
obstructed, he sailed 
around t h r o u g h 
Chesapeake Bay and 
landed his force at 
Elkton, about fifty 
miles from Philadel- 
phia. Washington 
marched overland to 
oppose him. Though 
the American general 
had only a force of 
about eleven thou- 
sand men, he was de- 
termined to risk a 
battle for the defense 
of Philadelphia. 

150. Battle of the 
Brandywine. — Wash- 
ington took up his position on the east side of the Brandy- 
wine near Chadd's Ford. Immediately the British attacked. 
A part of Howe's army under the command of Knyphausen 




The Campaigns in the Middle States. 



138 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



(knip'hou-zen), a Hessian general, engaged the Americans di- 
rectly in front, while Howe, with a large force, went farther up 
the river, crossed at Jeffrey's Ford, and turned the right flank 
of the American army. The patriots were routed, Lafayette 
was wounded, and Washington was forced to retreat to Phila- 
delphia. His army was not large enough to resist success- 
fully the advance of General Howe, and late in September the 




The Attack on the Chew House at (Jek.mantown. 

British entered the city. A portion of the force, under Corn- 
British wallis, occupied Philadelphia, and a large body under 
inPhiladel- General Howe encamped at German town. Washing- 
P hia - ton occupied a position farther up the Schuylkill. 

151. The Battle of Germantown. — Having received rein- 
forcements from Maryland and from New York, Washington 
decided to give battle. On October 4 he attacked the 
British at Germantown. His plan was well laid, and at the 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 139 

outset the Americans were successful. General Greene routed 
the British right wing. Six companies of regulars, however, 
occupying a stone house (the property of the Chews, a well- 
known Philadelphia family) poured forth such a deadly fire 
of musketry upon the Americans that they were unable to 
advance. The delay at the Chew house was such that 
Greene's success could not be followed up. Added to this, 
a dense fog set in. Then, finally, additional British troops 
came up and the Americans were obliged to retire. 

152. Burgoyne's Famous Expedition. — General Howe, 
by establishing his base of operations 
at New York, had not succeeded in 
cutting off New England from the 
other states. Therefore, a new plan, 
with this same end in view, was 
adopted. General Burgoyne (bur- 
goin'), with a force of about eight 
thousand men, received positive 
orders from London to march from 
Canada, by way of Lake Champlain, 
to Albany, where General Howe from 

xt v 1 • • 1 • mi 1 General Burgoyne. 

New York was to join him. Thus, by 

combined action, it was arranged that Burgoyne and Howe 
should separate New England from New York. Burgoyne, 
however, was opposed by General Schuyler, who broke down 
bridges, felled trees across the roads, and did everything 
possible to harass the enemy and hinder his advance. Never- 
theless, Burgoyne captured Ticonderoga and pushed his army 
southward. Colonel Baum with one thousand men was totally 
defeated by the patriots under General John Stark Arnold's 
at Bennington. A British force sent up the Mohawk Stratagem. 
Valley was routed through stratagem by General Arnold. A 
half-witted Tory boy named Yan Yost Cuyler was held by 




140 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Arnold under arrest. Arnold told him that he would give 
him his freedom if he would make the enemy believe that 
a large body of Americans was close at hand, ready to 
capture the whole British army. The boy played this part 
with absolute success. He rushed into the British camp, 
breathless and greatly excited, his coat full of bullet holes, 
and told them that an American army of countless numbers, 
heavily armed, was right upon them, and that in a few 
minutes they would all be cut to pieces. A panic ensued 
and the British were soon in full flight. 

153. Battle of Freeman's Farm. — Burgoyne moved his 
army across the Hudson and (September 19) met the 
American force at Freeman's Farm, below Saratoga. An 
obstinate contest ensued. Both armies fought with skill and 
tact, and both exhibited the most heroic bravery. The battle, 
however, was indecisive. This encounter is known as the 
first battle of Stillwater. 

154. Battle of Bemis's Heights. — Two weeks of constant 
watching followed. Then occurred the battle of Bemis's 
Heights (October 7), sometimes called the second battle of 
Stillwater. This resulted in victory for the Americans. 
The patriot army had been put under the command of 
General Gates, but these two battles were fought by Gen- 
eral Schuyler and General Arnold. In the engagement of 
Bemis's Heights the latter officer, who had displayed great 
skill and bravery, was severely wounded. 

155. The Surrender of Burgoyne. — Burgoyne was sur- 
rounded, his retreat cut off, and on the 17th of October, 1777, 
he surrendered his entire command. 1 His army had been 

1 General Clinton had sent a messenger to Burgoyne with a letter 
.written on very thin paper and put inside of a silver bullet. The messenger 
was captured at Kingston. He swallowed the bullet, but it was recovered 
by an emetic. The messenger was hanged and Burgoyne did not get his 
word from Clinton. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1776-1777) 141 

reduced in various ways. Many had returned to Canada ; the 
Indians and some Canadians and Hessians had deserted. 
The number surrendered was 5,791 men. 

This victory was of immense value to the American cause. 
The plan for the campaign had been formed in London, and 
it was there confidently believed that in a few Results 
months Washington's little army would be ef- of the 
fectually crushed and the conquest of the rebel Cam P ai g n - 
colonies finished. The entire failure of this well planned and 




Winter at Valley Forge. 

important campaign created a strong reaction in England in 
favor of these same rebel colonies. Moreover, on the side of 
the Americans themselves, a new impetus was given to en- 
listments, and the thin ranks of the American army began 
rapidly to fill. 

156. Winter at Valley Forge. — The British, under Gen- 
eral Howe, went into winter quarters in Philadelphia, where 
they lived in ease and luxury. Washington selected as the 
place for his winter camp Valley Forge, a little village in 



142 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Chester County. His headquarters were in a stone house 
owned by Mr. Isaac Potts. 1 Here the soldiers built their 
huts, cooked their food, and had daily drills. They endured 
most extreme hardships. The winter was unusually severe. 
The soldiers were ill fed, half clothed, and unpaid. Many 
went practically barefoot. Sometimes they left bloody 
tracks in the snow. The story of that winter at Valley 
Forge, in the " wilderness of America," is an "epic of slow 
suffering, silently borne, of patient heroism." 2 

157. "The Conway Cabal." — And as though Washington 
had not enough burdens to bear, he was obliged to endure 
the indignity of slander. A plot, or rather a conspiracy, was 
planned to remove him and put Gates in his place. This 
was known as the Conway Cabal. General Gates, a weak 
and ambitious man, and Conway, an unprincipled Irish ad- 
venturer, laid the plan, consulted together, and influenced 
many members of Congress to its adoption. However, their 
scheme was exposed, Washington was vindicated, Conway 
resigned, and Gates was sent to his command in the North. 
Washington's reputation was thereby rendered greater than 
before. Then, as always, the army was loyal to him. 

158. Negotiations with France. — The defeat of Burgoyne's 
army convinced the French that our chances of success were 
not small. They saw that the Americans, with their small 
undisciplined army, scattered over a large territory, had shown 
themselves able to capture Burgoyne's disciplined regulars. 
The king of England had hired mercenary soldiers from 
Germany. Why should not France not only recognize the 
young republic, but also render her efficient aid? Accord- 
ingly, "France cast her sword into the scale against Eng- 
land." The king of France said that he would not merely 

1 The house is still standing, and is used as a Revolutionary Museum. 

2 "Story of the Revolution," !>y Henry Cabot Lodge. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 143 

acknowledge the independence of America, but that he would 
aid her to gain it. 

SUMMARY 

At first the colonies fought for a redress of grievances. But 
when England would not change her policy, they determined 
to declare themselves independent. A formal Declaration of 
Independence was framed and given to the world. 

The war was then pushed vigorously forward. General 
Howe arrived in New York, and the battles of Long Island and 
White Plains followed. 

Howe then planned an expedition across New Jersey to 
Philadelphia, but was held back by Washington's skillfully 
arranged battles at Trenton and Princeton. The next summer 
Howe sailed round by sea to Philadelphia, was met by Wash- 
ington at the Brandywine and later at Germantown, and finally 
entered and occupied the city. 

Meanwhile General Burgoyne was sent from Canada down 
the valley of the Hudson with instructions to separate New 
England from the rest of the colonies. He was attacked by 
the patriot troops at Freeman's Farm and at Bemis's Heights, 
and finally was obliged to surrender. The result of this expe- 
dition raised the spirits of the colonies and impressed the 
European nations. France not only acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of America, but determined to aid her. 

— ^ — 

CHAPTER XII 

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 

159. Treaty with France. — The^bright month of May had 
come. The buds were bursting on the trees of the Valley 
Forge forests. The breath of spring was bringing new life to 
all nature. Quite in accord with this hope-giving season 
came the French frigate, La Sensible, with news of the 



144 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

treaty, and cast anchor in the harbor at Portland, Maine. 
Lafayette, at the same time, received letters from Paris. He 
at once sought Washington and with tears of joy exclaimed, 
"Your Excellency, I bring you glad tidings. The king, my 
master, has acknowledged the independence of America and 
will sign a treaty to help you." 

On the morning of the 7th of May, at nine o'clock, the 
American army at Valley Forge assembled On parade. Then 
"the treaty of alliance was read and in solemn silence the 
army united in thanksgiving to Almighty God that He had 
given them one friend on earth. Huzzas for the king of 
France, for Washington and the Republic, with caps tossed 
high in air, and a rattling fire throughout the whole line, ter- 
minated the humble pageant." l 

This "treaty of amity and commerce," in which Louis XVI 
acknowledged the independence of the United States and 
pledged his assistance, was the first recognition by any foreign 
power of our independence, and the first treaty between the 
United States and any European nation. It was signed, on 
the part of the United States, by Benjamin Franklin, Silas 
Deane, and Arthur Lee. It was dated February 6, 1778. 
The A fleet had been sent out from France in April, 

French 1778, under command of Count D'Estaing (das'- 
Fleet - tan'), to blockade the British fleet in the Dela- 

ware and thus to cooperate with Washington, who would 
direct his forces against the enemy by land. 

160. The British leave Philadelphia. — On the resignation 
of Sir William Howe, who had been commander-in-chief of 
the British forces, Sir Henry Clinton was placed in command. 
Not deeming it prudent to remain in Philadelphia till 
D'Estaing sailed with his fleet into Delaware Bay, Clinton 
evacuated the city and retreated across New .Jersey with his 

Harrington's "Battles of the Revolution." 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 145 

army. His stores and baggage were sent to New York by 
fleet. 

161. The Battle of Monmouth. — As the season advanced, 
Washington moved his forces across New Jersey, in pursuit 
of Clinton. The purpose of the British general was to trans- 
fer his army safely to New York, and to avoid a battle. On 
the other hand, it was the design of Washington to attack the 
enemy as soon as they could be overtaken. The British army 
numbered about fifteen thousand men; Washington had 
nearly the same number. Lafayette, in command of the 
advance troops, overtook the British on the 28th of June 
at Monmouth, now Freehold. General Charles Lee begged 
him "for his honor's sake" to yield to him the command. 
Lafayette reluctantly consented. In the course of the battle, 
apparently without cause Lee ordered a retreat. Mi s b e _ 
Soon a panic arose among the troops. For- havior of 
tunately, at this crisis, Washington came riding Lee - 
up. At once he re-formed the retreating ranks, brought order 
out of chaos, and intelligently directed a quick advance. 
He seized defensive positions, and so restored the confidence 
of the troops that by evening the American army occupied 
a strong advance line. 1 That night Clinton withdrew his 
forces, hastened to Sandy Hook, and thence to New York. 
Washington took up his position at White Plains, where 
he could watch the British commander. There he remained 

1 When Lee came into Washington's presence, the commander-in-chief, 
rising in his stirrups and towering over the cringing officer, demanded in 
the most decided manner "an explanation of the retreat." It has been 
frequently said that Washington, contrary to his usual custom, indulged 
in profane language upon this occasion, but the best testimony entirely 
disproves this charge. Lee tried to excuse himself but failed. He was 
court-martialed and found guilty of "disobedience of orders in not 
attacking the enemy, misbehavior before the enemy, and disrespect to 
the commander-in-chief." He was suspended for twelve months. He 
resigned and never returned to the army. 



146 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



with his army till he went into winter quarters in New 
Jersey. 1 

162. The Settlement of Kentucky. — A few years before 
the opening of the Revolution, a small company of hardy 
hunters from North Carolina had pushed their way over the 
mountains into the fertile fields of Kentucky. A fort was 
built at Harrodsburg in 1774, and soon afterwards another 
was erected at Boonesborough, named for the famous pioneer, 




A Settler's Home in Kentucky. 

Daniel Boone. Kentucky had been a bloody battleground 
between Indian tribes. So much blood had been shed that 
it was called the "dark and bloody ground." The red men 
were very loath to share it with the white settlers, and it is 
marvelous that any pioneers dared to remain there. Yet not 
only did these first ones remain, but others followed. Their 
numbers constantly increased and new clearings had to be 
made in the Kentucky wilderness. 

1 A beautiful monument was erected some years ago to commemorate 
the battle of Monmouth. It stands on the public square, or triangle, in 
the town of Freehold, not far from Monmouth Court House. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 



147 



After the beginning of the war, the dangers and hard- 
ships there became more numerous. The British Indian 
governor of Canada offered rewards to the Indians Raids, 
for American scalps, and a settler could not venture outside 
the walls of the forts without running the risk of a shot 
from some skulking red man. The Indians had their head- 
quarters at Kaskaskia, Vincennes, and other of the old French 
settlements north of the Ohio, now in the possession of the 
English, and from these villages they obtained their supplies 
and ammunition. 

163. George Rogers Clark. — All the territory south of the 
Great Lakes and between the 
Allegheny Mountains and the 
Mississippi had been occupied 
by the French, but it had 
also been included in the 
grants to several English colo- 
nies. In 1774, the British Par- 
liament, in an act called "The 
Quebec Act," made the terri- 
tory northwest of the Ohio 
River a part of the Canadian 
domain. Had it not been for 
one man, possibly we might 
not have secured this region 
by the treaty of peace at the 
close of the Revolutionary War. That man was George 
Rogers Clark, a native of Virginia. In the year 1778, when 
he was twenty-five years of age, having made an explor- 
ing tour into Kentucky, he returned on foot to Virginia, to 
obtain aid from the governor for the western frontier. 
The next year he conducted an expedition against the old 
French settlements in the Illinois country. So secretly 




George Rogers Clark. 



148 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

had his plans been made that his arrival at Kaskaskia was 
Kaskaskia a complete surprise. He captured the place with- 
Captured. ut a battle, and secured not only the British 
governor but also the writ which the governor had received 
from Canada instructing him to incite the Indians against 
Kentucky. 

164. The Capture of Vincennes. — The governor of Vin- 
cennes, General Hamilton, was stationed at that post with a 
large force. Colonel Clark, with one hundred and thirty men, 
set out from Kaskaskia for Vincennes in February, 1779. It 
was a long journey, beset with difficulties which most men 
would have found insurmountable. The march lay across a 
country flooded by the melting snows and without bridges 
or roads. Often the men waded through water up to their 
bodies, and sometimes to their armpits. They suffered un- 
told hardships, but they did not flinch. Never was there a 
braver or a more heroic body of men than the little army 
which marched with George Rogers Clark. 

On the 23d of February, just at dusk, Clark with his men 
entered Vincennes from the river below, captured the town 
without meeting with any resistance, and laid siege to the 
fort. The next day Vincennes surrendered. Hamilton and 
his garrison were marched to Williamsburg, where they were 
imprisoned. Finally permanent possession was secured of 
the entire territory north of the Ohio; Virginia established 
the county of Illinois and passed a vote of thanks to "Colonel 
Clark and the brave officers and men under his command 
for their extraordinary bravery and perseverance and for the 
important services which they had thereby rendered their 
country." Not only had they secured the Northwest Terri- 
tory for the United States, but they had also stopped the 
Indian raids. 

165. Movements in 1779. — Neither army was inactive 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 149 



during this year. The British sent out marauding bands 
into Virginia and other parts of the country. General Clinton 
led an expedition up the Hudson. General Tryon raided 
through Connecticut and burned East Haven, Fairfield, and 
Norwalk. 

The Americans gained several important victories. Gen- 
eral Wayne — "Mad Anthony Wayne" he was sometimes 





The Medal Voted to General Anthony Wayne by Congress. 



Stony 

Point, 

Paulus 

Hook, 

and the 

Serapis. 



called because of his impulsive and energetic bravery — by 
a bold and decisive stroke captured Stony Point, 
a strongly fortified place on the Hudson, forty 
miles north of New York. Major Henry Lee of 
Virginia, "Light Horse Harry," 1 successfully 
stormed Paulus Hook, now Jersey City, at two 
o'clock on the morning of August 19. Not a shot 
was fired; only bayonets were used. Commodore Paul 
Jones, in his ship the Bon Homme Richard, captured the 
Serapis in a daring and victorious engagement. 

The last part of 1779 was a gloomy period for the Ameri- 
cans. The assistance of France had proved of less benefit 
than had been expected. Several important plans had failed, 

1 This was the father of General Robert E. Lee. 



150 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the financial affairs of the country were depressing, and Great 
Period of Britain was laying plans for a yet more vigorous 
Gloom. prosecution of the war. It seemed hardly possible, 
much less probable, that within two years our independence 
would be assured. 

166. The War in the South. — Before that event could be 
realized, the Southern states had yet to experience a time of 
discouragement and disaster. In December, 1778, Clinton 
had sent Colonel Campbell with more than three thousand men 
and a fleet under Admiral Parker against Savannah. The city 
was defended by a small force under General Robert Howe. 
The Americans fought bravely, but were completely over- 
powered by the superior number of the British and were 
forced to abandon the city. Campbell had about four thou- 
sand men under his command. They overran the lower part 
of Georgia and various engagements took place between them 
and the Americans. Our army was commanded by General 
Lincoln, a skillful and brave officer who had already dis- 
tinguished himself in the various campaigns of the North. 

167. The AmericansRepulsed at Savannah. — In Septem- 
ber (1779) the Americans attacked the British forces at 
Savannah. They laid siege to the city, and a few days later, 
aided by a French fleet under Count D'Estaing, made a 
vigorous assault. The British, however, being strongly en- 
trenched, repulsed the besiegers, who suffered great loss. The 
Americans retired to Charleston and the French fleet sailed 
away to the West Indies. 

168. Patriot Bands. — The patriots of the South were 
obliged to protect themselves from the British and Tories, 
who overran the country and drove the inhabitants almost 
to desperation by their savage cruelties. They therefore 
organized bands in the various swamps under the command 
of brave leaders such as Marion, Lee, Pickens, and Sumter, 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (177&-1781) 151 




who skillfully harassed the 
British on their marauding 
expeditions. 

169. Battle of King's 
Mountain. — After the battle 
of Camden, in which the British were victorious, Major Fergu- 
son took refuge with his corps on King's Mountain, a long 



152 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

ridge just on the line between North and South Carolina. 
There he was attacked on the 7th of October by a force of 
sixteen hundred Americans, and after a fierce battle of an 
hour or two Ferguson was killed and the British surrendered. 
This battle was one of the most stubborn and decisive of 
the entire war. Those who fought on the patriot side were 
unpaid bands of men from Tennessee, Virginia, and the two 
Carolinas. 

170. Benedict Arnold. — Benedict Arnold had proved 
himself a brave officer. He had enlisted a company of sol- 
diers at the very beginning of the war, had fought bravely 
and endured great hardships. But he had also shown him- 
self to be extravagant and dishonest. His ambition, as it 
later appeared, was so great that he was willing to commit 
the blackest of crimes in order to gratify it. Arnold received 
from Washington the command of the important post of 
West Point on the Hudson River. It is now an established 
fact that he sought this position with the deliberate purpose 
of betraying it into the hands of the enemy. In the autumn 
of 1780 his plans were discovered by the capture of Major 
Andre, the British agent in the transaction, and West Point 
was saved. 

171. Andre's Arrest. — Major Andre, a British officer of 
Ad'' merit and personal charm, went up the Hudson in 
Interview a British vessel, the Vulture, had a secret inter- 
with view with Arnold, and received from him plans of 

the fortifications and a detailed account of the 
forces defending the place. The plan for delivering up the 
fortress to General Clinton was arranged, and Andre started 
to go back to New York by land. 

At Tarrytown Andre was arrested by three militiamen, 
John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. They 
were poor men to whom money was a temptation, but they 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 153 

were incorruptible patriots. 1 They refused Andre's offer of 
his horse, watch, purse, and any sum of gold they might name 
to release him. "No," said Paulding, "not for ten thousand 
guineas." 

Washington was quickly told of the situation. He made 
prompt efforts to capture Arnold, but was not successful. 
Arnold had been informed of the arrest of Andre Arnold's 
and at once escaped to New York. Here he joined Escape, 
the British army, was made brigadier-general, and received a 
reward of six thousand three hundred and fifteen pounds for 
his treachery. Mrs. Arnold afterwards received from the Eng- 
lish government a pension of five hundred pounds a year. 2 

Andre was tried, condemned, and hanged as a spy. 

1 These patriots were rewarded by Congress with pensions of two 
hundred dollars a year, each, for life. Congress also presented to each 
a silver medal, with the motto "Fidelity" on one side and " Vincit amor 
patriae" (the love of country conquers) on the other. 

2 Washington's plan for the capture of Arnold was bold and adroit 
and seemed promising, but in the end it was unavoidably defeated. Ser- 
geant John Champe was selected by Major Henry Lee to conduct the 
enterprise. The arrangement was that he should apparently desert, join 
the British army in New York, get attached to Arnold's legion which, it 
was well known, was already forming, and then devise and execute a 
scheme for Arnold's capture. 

Champe received his instructions from Major Lee on the evening of 
September 26. It was necessary that there should be no delay, for 
Washington hoped to secure Arnold in time to save Major Andre. Champe 
took his cloak, valise, and orderly book, drew his horse from the picket, 
and rode away from the camp about eleven o'clock. Within half an hour 
his absence was discovered, and a few minutes past twelve Colonel Middle- 
ton with a party of troops started in pursuit. The route lay along the 
valley of the Hackensack River to Paulus Hook, now Jersey City. 

In the morning, as the pursuing party reached an eminence a few miles 
north of Bergen, they saw Champe not more than half a mile in advance. 
Fortunately for Champe, he saw them at the same instant. Middleton 
divided his men so as to intercept Champe whichever way he should go. 
They spurred their horses to their utmost speed and the race began. 

But Champe was not to be trapped. He changed his course from 



154 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

172. Arnold's Subsequent Military Career. — Arnold's 
career to the close of the war was infamous. With sixteen 
hundred men he sailed for Virginia. Arrived there, he burned 
Richmond, destroyed much property in the vicinity, and 
made raids through the state, pillaging everywhere. Clinton 
sent him to ravage his native state, Connecticut. He cap- 
tured Fort Griswold, in Groton, and after the surrender of 
the fort butchered the commander and half the garrison. He 
burned New London, only a few miles from his birthplace. 
It is related that he stood in the belfry of a church steeple 

Paulus Hook to the little village of Bergen on the east side of Newark 
Bay. Finding his adversaries gaining upon him, he strapped his knapsack 
to his shoulders, drew his sword, threw away the scabbard, and turned 
his horse across the low ground toward the marsh which lay along the 
shore of the bay. Several British galleys were at anchor a short distance 
to the westward. Leaping from his horse, he ran across the marsh, 
plunged into the water, and calling for help swam toward the British 
vessels. They sent out a boat and picked him up. 

Middleton took Champe's horse and retraced his steps back to the 
camp. When Major Lee saw the party returning without Champe, but 
bringing his well-known horse, he supposed that Champe had been shot. 
The story was soon told and Lee breathed more freely, but of course was 
obliged to conceal his feelings. 

Champe was sent to New York to Sir Henry Clinton, who examined 
him, asking many questions about the condition of Washington's army 
and the restlessness of officers and soldiers. He was then sent to Arnold, 
became a member of his legion, and immediately entered upon his scheme 
for the capture of the traitor. 

He found that Arnold was accustomed to walk in his garden every 
night at twelve o'colok just before retiring. Champe dislodged several 
pickets from the fence, and replaced them so that they could be removed 
instantly and without noise and a way opened into the adjoining alley. 
The night for the seizure was set. It was arranged that Lee was to send 
a party of dragoons to Hoboken, and Champe with an assistant was to 
surprise Arnold, gag him before he could make an outcry, throw a cloak 
over him and hurry him off through the alleys and back streets to the 
boat on the river, where another assistant would be in waiting. Should 
any one question them on their way, they were to say they were taking 
a drunken soldier to the guard-house. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 155 

and watched the progress of the flames; and, like Nero, ap- 
peared "delighted with the ruin he had caused, the distresses 
he had inflicted, the blood of his slaughtered countrymen, the 
anguish of the expiring patriot, the widow's tears, and the 
orphan's cry." Thus ended Arnold's career as a soldier. 1 

173. Arnold's After Life. — Arnold lived about twenty 
years after the Revolution, most of the time in England, 
shunned and despised by every one. Lord Surrey, having 
risen to speak in the House of Lords, saw Arnold in the 
gallery. He pointed to him and said: "I will not speak while 
that man is in the house." At another time, when a peti- 

Lee himself went with the party to the Hoboken shore. They waited 
impatiently from midnight till daybreak, but as no boat appeared they 
returned to their camp up the river. A few days afterwards Lee received 
word from Champe that on the appointed evening Arnold had removed 
his headquarters to another part of the town, in order to superintend the 
embarkation of troops for his expedition to Virginia. 

So that night, John Champe, instead of escorting Arnold across the 
Hudson and into the American camp to be hanged as a traitor, was himself 
safely placed on board one of the British transports. Some time elapsed 
before he could desert, but when he did accomplish the task he promptly 
presented himself to his old commander (then Lieutenant-Colonel Lee), 
who with his corps was in the interior of North Carolina. 

Great must have been the surprise of Colonel Lee when Champe appeared 
in camp, and we may well believe that all who witnessed the occurrence 
were startled to see the cordial reception that was given him. Soon the 
whole story was known to the troops. Champe, who had been regarded 
as a base traitor and deserter, was now honored as a bold patriot who had 
undertaken a heroic and arduous enterprise, which had failed only because 
of unavoidable circumstances. Washington immediately gave Champe 
his discharge lest at any time he might fall into the hands of the British, 
in which event, if recognized, he would surely end his life on the gallows. 
The above incident, given thus in detail, forms one of the most interesting 
stories of the entire war. 

1 It is related that Arnold once asked a captain whom he had taken 
prisoner, what he thought the Americans would do with him, if he should 
fall into their hands. The officer replied, "They will cut off the leg 
which was wounded when you were fighting for the cause of liberty and 
bury it with the honors of war, and hang the rest of your body on a gibbet." 



156 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Hon was presented to the king, Lord Lauderdale is reported 
to have declared, as his eye fell on Arnold standing near 
the throne, that, however gracious might be the language 
he had heard from the throne, his indignation could not but 
be highly excited at beholding his majesty supported by a 
traitor. On account of this remark Arnold fought a bloodless 

duel with Lord Lauderdale. 
"His last years," it is said, 
"were embittered by re- 
morse." 1 

174. General Qreene in 
the South. — General Gates 
had been unsuccessful in 
the South and the British 
army had overrun the 
Carolinas and Georgia. 
General Greene was ap- 
pointed to succeed him. 
The force under his com- 
mand was not only small, 
but was largely composed 
of half-clothed and half- 
starved men. Greene, how- 
ever, was not dismayed. He at once sent General Morgan 
with a part of his troops across the mountains to threaten 
Ninety-six 2 and the posts in the rear of the British army. 
This was a wise move, although it left him but a meager two 
thousand men for immediate service. Cornwallis, on his part, 

1 At one t ime an American officer whom Arnold had known in early 
life was in London. Arnold called on him and sent in his name. "Tell 
the gentleman I am not at home," was the answer, "and never shall be 
for General Arnold." 

2 Ninety-sLx, a village in the western part of South Carolina, in Abbe- 
ville County. 




General Nathanael Greene. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 157 

dispatched Colonel Tarleton to strike Morgan, and himself at 
once started to attack Greene. Morgan selected for his posi- 
tion a place called Cowpens, South Carolina, just at an angle 
of the Broad River, which he judged would cut off retreat. 

175. Battle of Cowpens. — Tarleton advanced through an 
open wood, and was fired upon by the Americans. When, as 
instructed, our army fell back, the British took this move- 
ment for a retreat, rushed on and soon confronted the Con- 
tinentals. The American cavalry routed the opposing forces 
and gained the day. It was a great victory. The loss to the 
Americans was small, while the British casualties were more 
than a hundred killed and wounded and six hundred prison- 
ers. The Americans captured two cannon, eight hundred 
muskets, one hundred horses, and great quantities of supplies. 

176. Guilford Court House. — The next engagement was 
at Guilford Court House, in northern North Carolina. This 
battle was fought March 15, 1781. It was a bloody conflict, 
but neither army could claim the victory, except that Corn- 
wallis held the field. Greene took up his camp in a strong 
position a few miles away on Troublesome Creek. Of this 
battle, Ramsay, the historian of South Carolina, says, "The 
British had the name, the Americans the good consequence, 
of victory." Charles James Fox, in the House of Commons, 
said, "Another such victory would ruin the British army." 

In April was fought another important battle at Hobkirk 
Hill. The contest was fierce, and the losses on both Hobkirk 
sides were about equal. As the British held the Hil1 - 
field they claimed the victory, but the battle "produced no 
consequences beneficial to British interests." 

177. Eutaw Springs. — Cornwallis decided to move his 
forces into Virginia, hoping, perhaps, to draw Greene away 
from the Carolinas. The British general believed that the war 
could best be fought in Virginia. He left a force under 



158 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Lord Rawdon to hold South Carolina and Georgia. General 
Greene immediately moved south and undertook to win 
back the Southern states. Sumter and Marion were on the 
move all summer. They captured Orangeburg, Fort Mott, 
Fort Granby, Fort Cornwallis, Georgetown, Augusta, and 
laid siege to Ninety-six. In September Greene fought the 

last battle of the South at 
Eutaw Springs. The British 
fled and were pursued for thirty 
miles by the Americans. 

In all the maneuvers General 
Greene, who was obliged con- 
stantly to fight under disad- 
vantages, showed himself to be, 
next to Washington, the most 
skillful American general. In 
little more than a The Caro- 
year he had practi- Unas and 
cally recovered the Geor S la - 
Carolinas and Georgia from 
British rule. 
178. The Plans of Corn- 
wallis. — Cornwallis had determined to carry on the contest 
in Virginia. Greene was in the South, Washington was op- 
posing Clinton at New York, and Lafayette with about 
twelve hundred New England and New .Jersey troops was in 
Virginia. Cornwallis tried to draw Lafayette into an engage- 
ment, but the prudent marquis was too shrewd to risk battle 
with an army so much larger than his own. The British 
army, therefore, carried on marauding excursions here and 
there, destroyed much property, and finally crossed to the 
peninsula made by the York and James rivers. 

179. Washington's Purpose. — The great American gen- 




From the painting by Copley. 

General Cornwallis. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 159 



eral now saw his opportunity. He determined, at all hazards, 
to crush the army of Cornwallis. For this purpose, while 
keeping up appearances before Clinton's force at New York, 
he moved his main army with all possible speed across New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania, and had almost reached Delaware 
before Clinton suspected his intentions. Meanwhile Count 
Rochambeau (ro-shon'-bo'), who had been at Newport with 
a French army of several thousand men, had moved his 
entire force to New York, and, having joined Washington's 
army in New Jersey, marched with it to Virginia. This 
rapid march from New York to the Virginia peninsula was 
a bold and difficult maneuver. 

1 80. At Yorktown. — By the middle of September Wash- 
ington and Rocham- 
beau had reached 
Lafayette's headquar- 
ters at Williamsburg. 
Before the end of the 
month the combined 
armies had appeared 
before Yorktown. 
Meanwhile the French 
fleet of twenty-eight 
ships of the line and 
s i x frigates, under 
Count De Grasse (de- 
gras'), which had re- 
cently sailed from the 
West Indies to the 
Chesapeake Bay, appeared in the York River opposite York- 
town. Cornwallis was in an uncomfortable position. The 
Continental armies hemmed him in and prevented his escape 
by land, and the French fleet obstructed his retreat by water. 




ROCHAM-BEAU^ 
WASHINGTON A 



The Battleground of Yorktown. 



160 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The real siege began with a bombardment on the 9th of 
October. The American armies, throwing up entrenchments 
in parallel lines from a point below Cornwallis's position to 
another point above the town, advanced nearer day by day. 

181. The Surrender. — For ten days the Americans, aided 
by their French allies, hemmed Cornwallis in closer and closer; 
a full hundred cannon were concentrated against his fortifi- 
cations until every British gun was disabled and dismounted. 
Finally, on the 19th of October, 1781, terms of capitulation 
were agreed upon, and the entire British army, numbering 
nearly eight thousand, marched under arms to a plain on an 
outer edge of the town and there formally surrendered. Corn- 
wallis, worn out, sick, and mortified, deputed General O'Hara 
to tender his sword. Some months before this General Lin- 
coln had been obliged to give up his sword at Charleston. 
Washington appointed Lincoln to receive the sword of the 
British general. With this surrender of Cornwallis and his 
army at Yorktown, the war practically ended. 1 Washington 
and his soldiers then retired to winter quarters, in New Jersey 
and on the Hudson. 

1 The following details of the surrender are given by General Carrington 
in his excellent work. "The Battles of the American Revolution": — 

"At twelve o'clock the two redoubts on the left flank of York were de- 
livered over, one to the American infantry and the other to the French 
grenadiers. 

"At one o'clock two works on the Gloucester side were delivered re- 
spectively to French and American troops. At two o'clock the garrison 
of York marched out to the appointed place in front of the post, with 
shouldered arms, colors cased, drums beating a British march, grounded 
their arms and returned to their encampments, to remain until dispatched 
to their several destinations in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. 
The land forces became prisoners to the United States and the marine 
forces to the naval army of France. The British troops marched to the 
field of ceremony with their usual steadiness, and the appearance of the 
whole army, having received an issue of new clothing, was as soldierly as 
if on garrison parade." 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 161 

182. The Effect of the Surrender in America. — The news 
was received in one place after another with great rejoicing. 
The courier who brought the tidings reached Philadelphia 
at two o'clock at night, and immediately the watchman, going 
his rounds, shouted, "Two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken." 
There was no more sleep that night for the citizens. Bon- 
fires were lighted on the hilltops, and fast riders were dis- 
patched to distant points 'with the glad news. 

183. The Effect in England. — The liberal party in Eng- 
land was at once greatly strengthened. Many of the ablest 
statesmen and most discerning people of Great Britain had 
opposed the war from the beginning, but King George and 
his premier, Lord North, had been fixed in the determination 
to prosecute it. Now, when Lord North heard that Corn- 
wallis had surrendered his army to the rebels, he paced the 
room in great agony, swinging his arms and repeating again 
and again, "It is all over, it is all over. Everything is lost." 
It was moved in Parliament to give up "all further attempts 
to reduce the revolted colonies." The city of London en- 
treated the king to put an end to "this unnatural and unfor- 
tunate war." 

184. The Victory Celebrated by Congress. — As soon as the 
dispatches announcing the victory reached Congress, that 
body, followed by an immense concourse of people, went in 
procession to the Dutch Lutheran Church to return thanks to 
Almighty God. In the evening Philadelphia was illuminated 
with greater splendor than ever before. Congress voted 
honors to Washington, to Rochambeau, and to De Grasse, 
and especial thanks to all the officers and men of the army. 

185. Preparing for the Treaty of Peace. — There were no 
further plans for great military movements. Instead, prepa- 
rations were made for a formal treaty of peace. Necessarily 
this took considerable time. At first Congress appointed 



162 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



John Adams, our minister to Holland, to negotiate the treaty. 
Adams was too much of an Englishman himself to please the 
French people, who soon began to inquire why America, 

which was the home of so many brilliant statesmen, should 
place all the honor of making this important treaty in the 
hands of one man. At length Congress, finding this argument 
quite reasonable, made other arrangements. 

186. Five Commissioners. — Finally it was determined 
that the treaty be referred to a commission of five: John 
Adams of Massachusetts, representing New England, to be 
chairman: John Jay of New York, and Benjamin Franklin 

of Pennsylvania, representing 
the Middle states; and Thomas 
Jefferson of Virginia, and 
Henry Laurens of South Caro- 
lina, representing the South. 
Jefferson, for good reasons, 
did not go to Paris, where the 
treaty was negotiated, and 
Laurens, who had lately been 
released from long confine- 
ment in the Tower of Lon- 
don, was still in poor health. 
The important work of the 
treaty was, therefore, performed by Jay, Franklin, and 
Adams, but since Adams was much of the time in Holland, 
where he was negotiating a treaty, the burden fell largely upon 
the two commissioners from New York and Pennsylvania. 

187. Three Important Questions. - The three main topics 
on which opinions most widely differed, were these: 

1. The Atlantic fisheries. 

2. The treatment of the Loyalists, or Tories, as they were 
called. 




From a medallion. 

Be n.i a m 1 \ Vh\ \ ki.i x . 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE (1778-1781) 163 

3. The western boundaries. 

Adams succeeded in securing our right to take "fish of 
every kind on the Grand Banks and on all other banks of 
Newfoundland, also in the Gulf of St. Lawrence." 

Franklin managed to settle the question of the rights of 
the Loyalists by referring it, since Congress had no power in 
the matter, to the several states. He satisfied the British 
commissioner with these words: "It is agreed that the 
Congress shall earnestly recommend it to the legislatures of 
the respective states, to provide for the restitution of all 
estates, rights, and properties which have been confiscated, 
belonging to real British subjects." 

Largely through the efforts of John Jay, possession was 
acquired of all the territory in the northwest beyond the 
Great Lakes to the Lake of the Woods, and thence down the 
Mississippi River. Mr. Oswald, the British commissioner, had 
proposed that the western boundary should be the Mississippi 
and the Ohio rivers. Franklin objected, saying, "If you insist 
on that, we go back to Yorktown." 

This treaty, which was called the Provisional Treaty, was 
signed as follows : — 

" Done at Paris, the thirtieth day of November, in the year 
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-two. 

Richard Oswald. 
John Adams. 
Benjamin Franklin. 
John Jay. 
Henry Laurens." 

The Definitive Treaty, which followed, was signed at Paris 
the third day of September, 1783, by David Hartley for Great 
Britain, and Adams, Franklin, and Jay for the United States. 
These two treaties acknowledged fully the independence of 
the United States of America. 



164 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

SUMMARY 

The news of the treaty of alliance with France, and the arrival 
of the French fleet brought joy to the patriot army at Valley 
Forge. Before the arrival of the fleet, Howe evacuated Phila- 
delphia. Washington pursued him across New Jersey and 
overtook him at Monmouth Court House. In the engagement 
which followed, at first the Americans, but finally the British, 
were forced to retreat. 

To stop the Indian raids into Kentucky, George Rogers 
Clark made an heroic expedition against Kaskaskia and Vin- 
cennes. He not only captured these posts, but gained the 
control of the whole of the Northwest Territory. 

The year 1779 was marked by a few American victories, 
but was on the whole a gloomy period for the new republic. 
In the following year Benedict Arnold attempted to betray 
West Point, and deserting to the British, fought against his 
country. 

The remaining battles of the war were fought for the most 
part in the South. After a series of battles in the Carolinas, 
Cornwallis withdrew to Yorktown. Here the British general 
was besieged by Washington and the French fleet, and forced 
to surrender. While this was going on in Virginia, the British 
were driven out of the Carolinas and Georgia by General 
Greene. The war was practically at an end, and by the 
treaty of peace signed at Paris in 1783, the United States 
were acknowledged a free nation and came into the posses- 
sion of the American continent as far west as the Mississippi. 

— -8$* 

CHAPTER XIII 

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND THE FEDERAL 
CONVENTION 

188. The Revolutionary Government. — In June, 1776, 
as soon as the Continental Congress had determined to put 
forth a Declaration of Independence, it appointed a com- 



THE FEDERAL CONVENTION 165 

mittee to draft "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual 
Union." This was not an easy task. Hitherto the several 
colonies had been independent of each other and jealous of 
each other. Their experience with Great Britain had been 
such as to make them suspicious of any strong national power. 
The Northern and the Southern states had but little in com- 
mon, and the small states were in constant fear of the greater 
power of the larger states. The committee, however, soon 
reported to Congress Articles of Confederation. These were 
considered by Congress from time to time, changes were made 
in them, and finally, in November, 1777, after a delay of more 
than a year, they were submitted to the states for ratifica- 
tion. These Articles were to be binding only after having 
been ratified by all the states. Here was the difficulty. The 
majority of the states, one after another, agreed to them, but 
some hesitated, and Maryland, the last state to ratify, held 
off until March, 1781. Hence the Articles did not go into 
effect till nearly five years after the colonies had declared 
themselves independent and the war was almost ended. 
Meanwhile the Continental Congress had maintained a sem- 
blance of united government, though it really had no power 
nor authority. 

189. Weakness of the Articles of Confederation. — When 
adopted and put into force, these Articles proved false in 
theory and weak in practice. The following were some of 
the defects : — 

1. Congress was continued as a single body. 

2. No national courts were established. 

3. There was no executive. 

4. Every state, large or small, had but one vote in the 
Congress. 

5. Congress could not levy a tax. 

6. Congress could not compel the states, so that every 



166 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



state did as it chose, heeding or not any advice or demand 
from the Congress, as it might see fit. 

In short, the Congress could declare everything, but it 
could enforce nothing. There was great danger that the 
government would be overthrown and that anarchy and 
chaos would reign. 

Washington wrote to a member of Congress, "You talk, 
my good sir, of employing influence. Influence is not gov- 




Independence Hall at Philadelphia. 



eminent. Let us have a government by which our lives, 
liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the 
worst at once." 

190. The Federal Convention. — Finally, after much dis- 
satisfaction had been felt and expressed, in accordance with 
a vote of Congress, a convention of delegates from the several 
states met at Philadelphia, May 11, 17X7, to "revise the 
Articles of Confederation." All the states, except Rhode 



THE FEDERAL CONVENTION 167 

Island, were represented. The members of this convention 
were charged with "revising the Articles of Confederation, 
and reporting . . . such alterations and provisions therein 
as shall . . . render the federal constitution adequate to the 
exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union." 

191. Remarkable Character of this Convention. — This 
was undoubtedly the most celebrated gathering of able men 
that had ever been convened on the continent of America. 
Five members, viz., Franklin, Morris, Read, Sherman, and 
Wilson, had signed the Declaration of Independence; Wash- 
ington afterwards became the first and Madison the fourth 
President of the United States; Rutledge and Ellsworth be- 
came chief-justices; Gerry was later Vice-President; Hamil- 
ton, as the first secretary of the treasury, established our 
system of finance; Johnson was a doctor of laws; Wilson and 
Sherman were able constitutional lawyers ; Gouverneur Morris 
brought the Constitution to its present form; Benjamin 
Franklin was then past fourscore years of age, a profound 
scholar, a noted scientist, a distinguished diplomat, a practical 
philosopher, who now rounded out a long life of almost unsur- 
passed usefulness by thus contributing to his country, at this 
most critical period, the benefits of his long and successful 
experience. 1 

192. The New Constitution Framed. — The task set before 
this convention was a very difficult one. The Congress had 
authorized it to " revise the Articles of Confederation." How- 
ever, it soon became apparent that no mere revision would 
be found "adequate to the exigencies of government and 
the preservation of the Union." The convention, therefore, 
decided to frame a new constitution to supersede the old one. 
Throughout the entire summer, for four long months from 
May 14 to September 17, this convention of patriotic men 

1 Quoted substantially from Professor Francis Newton Thorpe. 



168 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



sat behind closed doors, in the city of Philadelphia, and per- 
formed the great work which now for more than a century 
has been the supreme law of this vast country. Of the Con- 
stitution, Gladstone, the foremost statesman of Great Britain, 
said : " It is the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given 
time by the brain and purpose of man." ' 

193 . The Constitution Adopted by the States. — After the 

framing of this new in- 
strument of government, 
it was next necessary to 
submit it to the several 
states for adoption or 
rejection. It could go 
into effect between the 
states ratifying it only 
when nine states, two 
thirds of the whole num- 
ber, had agreed to it. In 
less than one year all the 
states except North Caro- 
lina and Rhode Island had adopted it. The former state 
ratified it in November, 1789, and the latter in May, 1790. 
Under this Constitution, Washington was unanimously elected 

1 Upon the carved hack of the chair in which Washington sat, as presi- 
dent of the convention, was a representation of the sun on the horizon, 
with its diverging rays shooting upward. When the convention had 
finished its lahors and the members were standing around, one after 
another affixing his signature to the document, Benjamin Franklin, rub- 
bing his spectacles with his handkerchief, remarked to several members 
standing by: "Painters have found it difficult to distinguish in their art 
a rising from a setting sun. I have often and often in the course of the 
session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and my fears as to its issue, 
looked at that behind the president without being able to tell whether it 
was rising or setting; but now at length I have the happiness to know 
that the sun of America is rising and not setting." 




Chair and Table used by Washington 
as President of the Federal Con- 
vention. 



THE FEDERAL CONVENTION 169 

the first President and John Adams the first Vice-President. 
The new government went into effect in New York in the 
spring of 1789. 

SUMMARY 

The Articles of Confederation, which had been framed for 
the government of the new states soon after the colonists had 
declared themselves independent, proved to be defective in 
many ways. A convention was called by the Congress to revise 
them. Instead of revising the Articles, an entirely new consti- 
tution for controlling the affairs of the nation was drawn up 
and was adopted by the states. Under it the new government 
went into effect, with George Washington as President. 



SECTION III. — THE NATION 

CHAPTER XIV 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

194. The Preamble. — The Constitution begins with what 
has usually been called the Preamble. This gives the rea- 
sons for its adoption, and its aims and purposes. It is as 
follows: "We, the people of the United States, in order to 
form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the 
general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to our- 
selves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitu- 
tion for the United States of America." 

The Constitution divides the government into three depart- 
ments, viz.: (1) The Legislative or law-making department; 
(2) the Executive or administrative department; and (3) the 
Judicial or law-interpreting department. 

195. Legislative Power. — The legislative power is placed 
in the hands of a Congress of the United States, which consists 
of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. 

196. Powers of Congress. — Congress makes laws for the 
nation, but cannot interfere with the rights of the states; 
each state has its own laws, made by its own legislature. The 
powers of Congress are carefully defined by the Constitution. 

1. "To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and 
general welfare of the United States." 

170 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 171 



2. To borrow money. 

3. To regulate commerce. 

4. To make laws concerning the naturalization of foreigners. 

5. To make laws concerning . bankruptcies. 

6. To coin money and fix the standard of weights and 
measures. 

7. To provide for punishing counterfeiters. 

8. To establish post-offices and post roads. 




The Present National Capitol at Washington. 

9. To grant copyrights for books and patents for inven- 
tions. 

10. To establish United States courts. 

11. To punish piracy. 

12. To declare war and for this purpose to support armies. 

13. To provide and maintain a navy. 

14. To call forth the militia of the several states when 
needed. 



172 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

15. To organize, arm, and discipline this militia when called 
forth. 

16. To exercise full control over the District of Columbia, 
and over post-offices, custom-houses, arsenals, etc., which 
belong to the nation. 

17. And finally, "To make all laws which shall be necessary 
and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, 
and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the govern- 
ment of the United States, or in any department or officer 
thereof." 

197. Executive Power. — The executive power is vested 
in one man, the President of the United States. He is chosen 
for a term of four years, by electors appointed by the people 
of the several states. Each state has as many electors as it 
has senators and representatives in the national Congress. 
These electors are chosen on the first Tuesday after the first 
Monday in November of every leap year. They meet in their 
respective states on the second Monday in January following 
their election and vote for President and Vice-president. 
These votes are counted in the presence of the two houses of 
Congress on the second Wednesday in February, and on 
March 4 following the President enters upon his office. The 
principal powers and duties of the President are as fol- 
lows : — 

1. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the 
United States. 

2. He can make treaties, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate. 

3. He appoints, with the concurrence of the Senate, ambas- 
sadors and ministers to other countries, consuls, judges of the 
United States Court, and various other officers of the nation. 

4. He can grant reprieves and pardons for the offenses 
against the United Stall's. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 173 

5. He can call Congress together whenever he shall deem 
it necessary. 

6. He has the veto power on all acts passed by Congress. 

7. "He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 
and shall commission all officers of the United States." 

He can be re-elected for a second term, and there is no pro- 
vision in the Constitution to prevent his holding office for a 
third term. Washington, however, having served two terms, 




Room in the National Capitol used by the House of Repre- 
sentatives until 1859, now Statuary Hall. 



refused another election. And this precedent, established 
by the first President, has been an unwritten law ever since. 
No President has been elected for a third term. 

198. List of Presidents. — The following is the list of Presi- 
dents, with their terms of office : — ■ 

1. George Washington, Virginia, two terms, 1789-1797. 

2. John Adams, Massachusetts, one term, 1797-1801. 

3. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, two terms, 1801-1809. 

4. James Madison, Virginia, two terms, 1809-1817. 



174 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

5. James Monroe, Virginia, two terms, 1817-1825. 

6. John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts, one term, 1825- 
1829. 

7. Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, two terms, 1829-1837. 

8. Martin Van Buren, New York, one term, 1837-1841. 

9. William Henry Harrison, Ohio, one month. Died in 
office. 1841. 

10. John Tyler, Virginia, three years and eleven months, 
1841-1845. 

11. James Knox Polk, Tennessee, one term, 1845-1849. 

12. Zachary Taylor, Louisiana, one year and four months. 
Died in office. 1849-1850. 

13. Millard Fillmore, New York, two years and eight 
months, 1850-1853. 

14. Franklin Pierce, New Hampshire, one term, 1853-1857. 

15. James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, one term, 1857-1861. 

16. Abraham Lincoln, Illinois, elected twice, four years 
and one month. Died in office. 1861-1865. 

17. Andrew Johnson, Tennessee, three years and eleven 
months, 1865-1869. 

18. Ulysses Simpson Grant, Illinois, two terms, 1869-1877. 

19. Rutherford Burchard Hayes, ( )hio, one term, 1877-1881. 

20. James Abram Garfield, Ohio, six months. Died in 
office. 1881. 

21. Chester Alan Arthur, New York, three years and six 
months, 1881-1885. 

22. Grover Cleveland, New York, one term. 1885 L889. 

23. Benjamin Harrison, Indiana, one term, 1889-1893. 

24. Grover Cleveland, New York, another term, 1893 1897. 

25. William McKinley, Ohio, elected twice, four years and 
six months. Died in office. 1897-1901. 

26. Theodore Roosevelt, New York, 1901- 

199. Judicial Power. — The judicial power embraces a 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1790 175 

series of United States courts. The Constitution provides 
that there shall be "one Supreme Court and such inferior 
Courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and estab- 
lish." Congress has organized the following system of United 
States Courts : — 

1. The District Courts. 

2. The Circuit Courts. 

3. The Circuit Court of Appeals. 

4. The Supreme Court. 

Besides these there are special courts as follows : — 

1. Court of Claims. 

2. Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. 

3. District Courts in the several territories. 

4. Supreme Courts in the territories. 

The Supreme Court is presided over by a chief justice and 
eight associate justices. There are nine judges of the Circuit 
Court of Appeals, and an equal number of Circuit Court judges. 
The Circuit Courts are divided into districts; in every state 
there is at least one District Court, and several of the larger 
states have two or even three districts. 1 

— &$> — 

CHAPTER XV 

THE UMTED STATES IN 1790 

200. Extent of Territory. — By the treaty of 17S3 the 
territory of the new republic extended from the Atlantic 
Ocean on the east to the Mississippi River on the west, and 
from the Great Lakes and Canada on the north to Spanish 

1 For a fuller treatment of this subject of our national government 
under the Constitution, every teacher should use some text-book on Civil 
Government, having in mind the character and interest of the class. 



176 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Florida on the south. The country thus bounded, compared 
with what it is to-day, seems small. Yet it was even then 
a large territory. It embraced over eight hundred thousand 
square miles, lying in the north temperate zone, and was as 
large as France. Spain, Italy, and Germany combined. At 
the time no one supposed that its area would ever be in- 
creased. 

201. Population. — The population was small and mainly 
to be found east of the Allegheny Mountains. The entire 
number of inhabitants was less than four million. To-day, 
the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio 
have each a population greater than that of the whole coun- 
try in 1790. The average for the entire country was at that 
time only five persons to the square mile. 

Moreover, the population was then largely rural, and there 
were no big cities. Only six cities had a population of more 
than eight thousand: and these six cities, taken together, had 
only 181,472 inhabitants, barely more than three percent el' 
the population of the whole country. Hence more than 
ninety-six per cent of the people were in what may lie called 
rural communities. New York City had the largest popula- 
tion of any city in the country, numbering a little over sixty 
thousand. Philadelphia came next with forty thousand, 
then Boston with about eighteen thousand, and then Charles- 
ton, South Carolina, with about sixteen thousand. 

202. How the People Lived. In 1700 the people of the 
United States had no electric lights or gas. Houses were 
lighted by candles, and only in the largest towns were the 
streets illuminated, and then but dimly, by lanterns. Means 
of heating was confined to fireplaces and stoves; coal was 
not commonly used until long after this period. No sys- 
tem of waterworks had as yet been devised. Housekeepers 
were still dependent upon the well or the town pump or on 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1790 



177 



rain water caught in cisterns. Telegraphs and telephones were 
not even dreamed of, nor were any of the other electrical 
devices that are now so common. There were no railroad 
trains, no electric cars, no steamboats. All journeys on land 
were made on horseback, in private carriages, or in stage- 
coaches, and on the water in sailing vessels. 

Matches, sewing machines, typewriters, elevators, and bicy- 
cles were unknown. 
Envelopes were 
not used, neither 
were postage 
stamps. The cost of 
sending a letter de- 
pended upon the 
distance it traveled, 
and the rates were 
so high that few let- 
ters were written. 
The farmer knew 
nothing about the 
horse-plow, the 

seeder, the reaper, the binder, or threshing machine. Shoes 
were made by hand and so were nails, horseshoes, and tools of 
all sorts. In fact almost everything that one could use or 
wear was still manufactured without the aid of machinery. 
Indeed, most of the labor-saving devices and conveniences, 
without which to-day we think we could not live, were 
entirely unknown when Washington was President. Then 
there were only four daily newspapers in the United States 
and not one illustrated paper or monthly magazine. 1 

1 The first newspaper in the United States was published in Boston in 
1690. It was suppressed by the British government but was soon fol- 
lowed by the Boston News Letter. Other newspapers were established in 




The Old-time Mail Carrier. 



J 

178 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Truly, the world has greatly changed in the last hundred 
years. 

203. Industries. — A century ago the principal produc- 
tions of the country were the fruits of the soil, because the 
chief occupation of the people was agriculture. The differ- 
ence between the industrial advantages of the North and the 
South during colonial times has already been commented upon. 
Agriculture I n the Southern states, where the soil was most 
in the fertile and its cultivation most profitable, agri- 
South, culture flourished. Virginia possessed a source 
of wealth in her large and valuable crops of fine tobacco; at 
great profit the swamps of the Carolinas yielded the best rice 
in the English market; North Carolina was fast growing 
rich through her productions of pitch and tar. The entire 
population of the Southern states, by the cultivation of a pro- 
ductive soil, was becoming well-to-do and progressive. New 
England, on the other hand, with her rocky land, produced 
hardly enough corn, rye, and potatoes to feed her own people. 
She was forced, as we have already seen, to turn her atten- 
tion to other pursuits and industries than those of agriculture. 

204. Manufactures. — In the colonies, before the Revo- 
lution, Great Britain had almost entirely prevented the growth 
of manufacturing. Parliament had forbidden drawings, 
models, or memoranda of any machine used in making textile 
fabrics to be carried out of the realm. Naturally, after 

various colonies until at the beginning of the Revolution they numbered 
thirty-four. The first daily paper was published in Philadelphia in 1784. 
The right of the press to freedom of speech was established by the famous 
Zenger trial. Paul Peter Zenger was the publisher of the New York 
Weekly Journal, which was started in 173.3. This paper made so many 
attacks upon the government of the colony that copies of it were ordered 
to be burned by the hangman and Zenger himself was arrested and im- 
prisoned on the charge of libel. The jury decided that since the state- 
ments were true they were not libels and acquitted Zenger. 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1790 179 

independence had been won, there was a rebound in favor 
of manufacturing industries. By 1790, of course, there was 
little evidence of this change. Almost immediately, how- 
ever, manufactures of all kinds rapidly developed, especially 
in New England. 

205. Samuel Slater. — In the year 1790, Samuel Slater, 
an Englishman who had learned in his own country the manu- 
facture of cotton goods by machinery, introduced into a fac- 
tory at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, the first American machines 
for spinning cotton, worked by water power. Ten years 
later, Massachusetts alone had 62,794 hands employed in 
her cotton mills. 

206. Whitney's Cotton Gin. — Two years after Slater's in- 
troduction of the first cotton 
machinery, Eli Whitney, a 
native of Massachusetts, in- 
vented the cotton gin. Pre- 
viously the raising of cotton 
was not profitable because it 
was so difficult to separate the 
seed from the fiber. One man 
could separate only two or 
three, or at the most four, 

pounds of cotton in a day. Eli Whitxey - 

Whitney, who had gone to Georgia to teach school, made 
his home for a time in the family of the widow of General 
Nathanael Greene. One day some friends of Mrs. Greene, 
in conversation with her, regretted that there could Mrs 
be no profit in raising cotton. If only a machine Greene's 
for removing the seed could be invented, they Suggestion, 
said, this industry would become very profitable. Mrs. 
Greene had already observed Whitney's inventive genius 
and she replied, "Ask Mr. Whitney to invent one, for he can 




180 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



make anything." It was not long after this that Mr. Whitney 
succeeded in making a successful cotton gin. Immediately 
the raising of cotton became profitable in the South and the 
manufacture of cotton cloth on a large scale was made pos- 
sible in the North. In 1790 less than ten thousand bales of 
cotton were raised in the United States; in 1900 ten million 




Copyright, 1892, by J. Horgan, Jr. 

The Cotton Gin in Operation. 



bales were produced, the value of which was more than five 
hundred million dollars. 

207. Commerce. — At the close of the Revolution the 
United States found her commerce gone. A coasting trade, 
to be sure, was carried on between the North and the South, 
but there was practically no foreign commerce. English 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1790 181 

ports were closed to American exports, and the West Indies 
no longer bought the products of the North unless they 
were brought in English ships. The seaports of Europe 
were open to the United States, but Congress had no power 
to make treaties governing trade with foreign nations. Not 
until the new Constitution went into force did prosperity 
return to the seaboard towns. 

208. Fisheries. — From the earliest colonial times the 
hardy sailors of New England had carried on an extensive 
fishing industry, not only in the nearby waters but also on 
the great banks of Newfoundland. Dried fish had been one of 
the leading articles of export and brought large profits. At 
the close of the Revolution, one of the three important ques- 
tions determined by the treaty of peace was the fisheries 
question. By the third article of the treaty, Great Britain 
granted that the people of the United States should continue 
"to enjoy unmolested the right to take fish of every kind on 
the Great Bank and on all other banks of Newfoundland, also 
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and at all other places in the 
sea where the inhabitants of both countries used at any time 
heretofore to fish." For more than half a century this arti- 
cle has been of great benefit to the people of New England. 

209. Whaling. — When the first settlers came to New 
England, whales were frequently seen in the waters near the 
coast. Nantucket early engaged in the business N ntucket 
of catching them and marketing their oil. Whal- a Great 
ing began here before 1750. The Revolutionary Whaling 
War paralyzed the industry, which was in a meas- atlon - 
ure monopolized by England and France. In 1790 the 
population of the island of Nantucket was but a little over 
four thousand. From that time whaling became their prin- 
cipal occupation. The business was profitable and it caused 
a steady increase of population until in 1840 there were over 



182 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

nine thousand people on the island. Gradually the whaling 
industry declined, and the number of inhabitants continued 
to decrease until the census of 1900 showed only three thou- 
sand and six residing there. New Bedford was for many years 
the greatest whaling port of the world, and had nearly seven 
thousand and fifty vessels engaged in the fishery. 

210. Wealth. — After- the Revolution the entire country 
was poverty-stricken. The war had been very expensive, 
as all wars are. It had impoverished the people, who indeed 
had never been wealthy, but who from force of circumstan- 
ces had learned to be economical. In the year 1787, one 
calling himself an "honest old farmer" published a paper 
in which he said: "At this time my farm gave me and my 
whole family a good living from the produce of it, and left 
me, one year with another, one hundred and fifty silver dol- 
lars, for I never spent more than ten dollars a }'ear, which 
was for salt, nails, and the like. Nothing to wear, eat, or 
drink was purchased, as my farm provided all." And this 
case is but one of many. In those earliest days of our 
national life, our country, which has since become the 
wealthiest on the globe, was one of the poorest and at the 
same time one of the most frugal and industrious. 

2ii. Paper Money. During the war Congress and the 
legislatures of every state had felt obliged to issue paper 
money. This was an evil and nothing but an evil, and caused 
a vast amount of suffering. The value depreciated until 
paper money became almost worthless. At one time during 
its circulation, in Philadelphia a pair of boots sold for $600, 
handkerchiefs at $100 apiece, calico at $85 a yard. Some- 
times a barrel of flour cost $1,575 and John Q. Adams paid 
$2,000 for a suit of clothes. In one instance a bill of goods, 
amounting to $3,144.50 in currency, was paid by less than 
$100 in coin. By the new Constitution only the national 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1790 183 

government, not the state governments, could coin money, 
and by means of this restriction the country soon began to 
recover from this depressed condition of its finances. 

212. The Ordinance of 1787. — The Continental Congress 
had not the power to do great things in legislation, but there 
was one thing it could and did do. It legislated for the 
western territory which had been ceded to the general gov- 
ernment. In the year 1787, just at the time when the Federal 
Convention was in session, it passed an act called "An Ordi- 
nance for the government of the Territory of the United 
States northwest of the Ohio River." Seven of the thirteen 
states had claimed the country to the west as far as the 
Mississippi River. These states, by mutual agreement, finally 
ceded all claims to territory west of the mountains, except 
what is now Kentucky, which was organized into a county 
of Virginia. Among other provisions this famous Ordinance 
provided as follows for this western territory: 

1. Freedom of conscience in religious matters. 

2. Schools and education to be "forever encouraged." 

3. Slavery forever prohibited within its borders. 

4. Eventual division into states to be admitted into the 
Union on equal terms with the older states. 

From this territory five states have been formed, which 
to-day have a population of fully sixteen millions. 

213. Marietta. — When the war closed and the soldiers 
went to their homes, many found their places taken from 
them and their business gone. It was necessary for them 
to find new occupations and new homes. General Rufus 
Putnam befriended these discouraged men, and obtained 
for them, from the government, land in the Northwest Terri- 
tory. In January, 1788, a company of people set out from 
Massachusetts for the Ohio Valley. The snows were so deep 
on the mountain passes that they were obliged to abandon 



184 



ESSENTIALS OF EXITED STATES HISTORY 



their wagons and repack their goods on sleds, and oftentimes 
to break the way for the horses. But they reached Pittsburg 
in due time and there embarked in a clumsy, flat-bottomed 
boat. Early in April they reached the mouth of the Mus- 
kingum River. Immediately clearings were made, seeds 
were planted, and a town was begun. It was called Marietta 
and was the first permanent settlement in the state of Ohio. 




Traveling by Flat-boat down the Ohio. 

These pioneers sent home glowing accounts of the fertility 
of the soil and the rapid growth of the crops. "Why will 
you waste your time cultivating such land as this?" said 
one, who had returned for his family, to a former neighbor 
of his in the East. "Out in the West we have to stand on 
tiptoe to break off an ear of corn; while here you have to 
stoop down." Reports such as these spread. People flocked 
in great numbers to Ohio, though the Indians did everything 
possible to keep the Americans out of their hunting grounds. 
The red men had once said that no white man should plant 
corn in Ohio, and they declared that "before the trees again 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1790 185 

put forth their leaves, there shall not remain the smoke of 
a single white man's cabin west of the river." A Conflict 
terrible conflict followed, which finally resulted with the 
(1794) in an utter defeat of the Indians near the Indians, 
present site of the city of Toledo, by forces under General 
Wayne. Later the Indians moved farther west. The pio- 
neer settlements then grew so rapidly that in fifteen years 
Ohio had inhabitants sufficient for it to become a state. 



' SUMMARY 

At the beginning the nation, in comparison with what it has 
since become, was small in territory and thinly populated. 
Most of the inhabitants lived on farms and there were no 
large cities. The people were without the conveniences and 
comforts of modern life. Agriculture was the principal occu- 
pation. 

Great Britain had forbidden manufacturing in the colonies, 
but soon after the Revolution New England began to build 
various factories. Cotton manufacturing was especially aided 
by Samuel Slater and by Whitney's invention of the cotton 
gin. 

Commerce and the whale fisheries had been destroyed by 
the war, and not until the Constitution went into effect did 
prosperity return to the seaboard towns. The war had also 
left the people poverty-stricken. Paper money was the prin- 
cipal currency, and as it was almost valueless, the most com- 
mon articles brought fabulous sums. 

The Continental Congress had organized the Northwest Ter- 
ritory and provided for its government. The region was soon 
settled, and a town was founded at Marietta. Such glow- 
ing reports of the fertility of the soil were sent to the East, that 
in spite of the Indian hostilities thousands flocked to Ohio. 



186 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

CHAPTER XVI 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797) 

214. The New Government. — The Constitution went into 
effect March 4, 1789. As soon as a quorum was present the 
Senate was organized; John Adams was sworn into office 
as Vice-President; the House of Representatives chose their 
speaker and began operations; and George Washington, who 
had been unanimously elected, took the oath of President 
of the United States. It was on the 30th of April that 
Washington was inaugurated in New York City on the 
balcony of Federal Hall, corner of Wall and Broad streets. 
The oath of office was administered to him by Robert R. 
Livingston, the chancellor of the state of New York. It 
was an imposing ceremony, witnessed by a large concourse 
of people, including the members of both houses of Con- 
gress and many officials of New York and other stales. Thus 
the new government began. 

215. The First Cabinet. — Congress proceeded to estab- 
lish the necessary executive departments, and the President 
appointed officers for them. He made Thomas Jefferson 
secretary of what was at first called the Department of For- 
eign Affairs, and later the Department of State, Alexander 
Hamilton secretary of the treasury, Henry Knox secretary of 
war, and Edmund Randolph attorney-general. 

Other departments have since been added. These are 
Additions the Navy Department, the Post-Office Depart- 
to the ment, and the Department of the Interior, and 
Cabinet. w ithin a few years past the Department of Agri- 
culture and the Department of Commerce and Labor. 

216. The Judicial Department. — The Constitution estab- 
lished the Supreme Court of the United States. Washington 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797) 



187 



made John Jay of New York the first chief justice of this 
court. Jay was succeeded by John Hutledge of South Caro- 
lina, who in turn was followed by Oliver Ellsworth of Con- 
necticut, and he by John Marshall of Virginia. These were 
all men of great ability. John Marshall perhaps more than 
any other molded and shaped 
the court. He became chief jus- 
tice in 1801 and held the office for 
thirty-four years. ■ This Supreme 
Court is famous in the history of 
the world as a tribunal of the 
highest ability, which has fulfilled 
the prophecy made by Washing- 
ton concerning it, that it "would 
give dignity and luster to our 
national character. ' ' 

217. Amendments to the Con- 
stitution. — While Washington 
was President, ten amendments 
to the Constitution were adopted. These were in the nature 
of a Bill of Rights, and were substantially what Patrick Henry 
had urged in the Virginia convention. They took away many 
of the objections which had been raised to the Constitution, 
limited the power of the national government, and gave more 
authority to the states and the people. 

218. Revenue for the National Government. — At the 
close of the Revolution and in the dark days of the critical 
period between 1 783 and the beginning of the new government 
in 1789, the finances of the country had been in an alarming 
condition. The important question was, "How can sufficient 
revenue be raised for the new national government, so as to 
give it substantial and solid standing among the nations of 
the world'.'" The United States then, as now, had two prin- 




John Marshall. 



188 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

cipal sources of revenue : taxes on imported goods and taxes 
on the property of the country. 1 The new government 
made use of both of these methods. The principal revenue, 
however, except in a few instances, from that time until this, 
has been from tariff on imports. The first tariff bill was 
First Tariff passed during Washington's first term, and while 
Bil1 - primarily it was a tariff for revenue, yet to some 

extent it was also a tariff for protection. 2 Iron, hemp, cotton, 
and salt were among the manufactures protected. 

219. The First Census. — The first national census was 
taken in 1790, and a new census has been taken every ten 
years since. The census bureau is now one of the most im- 
portant of the national government. Each census collects 
careful and accurate information not only in regard to the 
population, but concerning industries, productions, imports, 
exports, wealth, illiteracy, education, religion, and many other 
important matters showing the progress, development, and 
condition of the country and its people. 

220. Coinage of Money. — The national mint for the 
coinage of gold, silver, and copper money was established at 
Philadelphia, where it has ever since been in active operation. 
The first coins were struck in 1793. The decimal system of 
money — ten dollars making an eagle, ten dimes a dollar, and 
ten cents a dime — was adopted. 

221. New States. — The new government contained thir- 
teen states, but during Washington's first term two states 

1 Tuxes on property may be on all property, real or personal, or they 
may he on specific kinds of property, or on goods manufactured. 

2 A tariff for revenue is a tax on importations from foreign countries 
and is designed to furnish money to carry on the government. A pro- 
tective tariff is designed to protect home production; and is placed upon 
raw materials or goods manufactured in countries where labor is cheap, so 
that they cannot be sold in the United States at a lower price than goods 
manufactured here. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797) 189 




From the painting by Stuart. 

George Washington. 

were added. These were Vermont, in 1791, and Kentucky, 
in 1792. During his second term, in 1796, Tennessee was 
admitted. Hence by the year 1800 there were sixteen states 
in the Union; eight of them were slave states and eight 
were practically free states. 

222. The French Revolution. — In 1793 the French 
people executed their king, Louis XVI. Thereupon three 



190 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



nations, England, Spain, and Holland, made war upon France 
During our Revolutionary struggle, France had aided us with 
a loan of money, with troops, and ships of war. Many of 
our citizens now wished that our government would in turn 
help France in her struggle with those three nations. Wash- 
ington and Hamilton favored strict neutrality, but Jefferson 
Division in wished to aid France. 1 Other differences arose in 
the the Cabinet, which caused much heated discussion, 

Cabinet. an( j tliere was great political excitement through- 
out the country. Jefferson resigned his position in the Cabi- 
net at the close of the year, and Hamilton in January, 1795. 

223. Great Britain Unfriendly. Although the English 
government had acknowledged our independence and made a 

treaty of peace with us in 1783, 
it still retained possession of forts 
on Lake Erie and in its vicinity. 
It held Detroit and seemed un- 
willing to withdraw its troops 
from our territory. Moreover, 
American seamen were taken 
from our merchant vessels under 
the pretext that they were Brit- 
ish deserters, and forced to serve 
on English ships. These things 
caused a bitter feeling toward 
England and many of our states- 
men favored a declaration of war. 

224. Jay's Treaty. — War, however, was averted by the 

1 In a letter to (lie Earl of Buehan, now preserved in the British Mu- 
seum, Washington wrote: "I believe it is the sincere wish of United 
Ameriea to have nothing to do with the political intrigues or the squabbles 
of European nations: but on the contrary, to exchange commodities and 

live in peace and amity with all the inhabitants of the earth, and this I am 
persuaded they will do, if rightly it can be done." 




John Jay. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797) 191 

celebrated treaty of 1795. This was the work of John Jay, 
an experienced and discreet statesman, whose services were 
prominent in the treaty of 1783 and who had served as chief 
justice of the United States. In some quarters this treaty 
met with bitter opposition. It was especially criticised be- 
cause it failed to restrict the British claim of the right to 
search our vessels and impress our seamen, and because of 
the feeling that it would restrict our commerce with the 
West Indies. 

225. Treaty with Spain. — During the same year Thomas 
Pinckney negotiated a treaty with Spain fixing the boundaries 
between the United States and Florida, and granting New 
Orleans as an open port of deposit for American merchandise, 
free of duty. 

226. Hamilton and the National Bank. — Alexander Ham- 
ilton was secretary of the treasury under Washington, and with 
great skill he established the treasury of the United States on a 
firm basis. Hamilton favored a national bank, and in 1791 
such a bank was chartered by Congress called "The Bank of 
the United States." The charter ran for twenty years, and 
when it expired, in 1811, it was not renewed. But it was 
rechartered in 1816 for twenty years and never renewed. 

227. Washington refuses a Thiol Term. — Washington, 
having been twice unanimously elected • President and having 
served for eight years, declined a reelection for a third term, 
and thereby established the precedent in accordance with 
which no President has been elected for a third term. 

No one except Washington has ever had a unanimous 
election. James Monroe, at the time of his reelection in 
1820, a period known as "the Era 0} Good Feeling," came within 
one vote of a unanimous election. He had two hundred and 
twenty-eight electoral votes, and a delegate from New Hamp- 
shire gave John Quincy Adams one vote, not because he was 



192 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

opposed to Monroe, but because he was unwilling that any 
one after Washington should have a unanimous election. 

228. Washington's Farewell Address. — Washington had 
been greatly abused by his political opponents. The attacks 
upon him had been made, as he himself expressed it, "in 
terms so exaggerated and indecent as could scarcely be applied 
to a Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even to a common pick- 
pocket." Having fully made up his mind to retire to private 
life, he wrote his "Farewell Address to the People of the 
United States." Concerning this address, John Marshall, 
in his "Life of Washington " says, " He wished to terminate his 
political course with an act which might be suitable to his 
own character and permanently useful to his country." He 
calls it "A Valedictory Address, in which, with the solicitude 
of a person who, in bidding a last adieu to his friends, Leaves 
his affections and his anxieties for their welfare behind him, 
he made a last effort to impress upon his countrymen those 
great political truths which had been the guides of his own 
administration, and could alone, in his opinion, form a sure 
and solid basis for the happiness, the independence, and the 
liberty of the United States." And he adds, "The sentiments 
of veneration with which this address was generally received 
were manifested in almest every part of the Union." In 
this address, interesting now as then, "The Father of his 
Country" spoke many words of important significance. 
"Promote, then," he said, "as an object of primary impor- 
tance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. . . . 
Recom- Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; 
mends cultivate peace and harmony with all. . . . Har- 
Peace. mony, and a liberal intercourse with all nations, 
are recommended by policy, humanity, and interest." 

229. Eight Years of Prosperity. — The first eight years 
under the Constitution were years of increasing prosperity 



JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 193 

for the country. The young republic brought new life into 
every department of domestic production and won the respect 
of all nations. Its population constantly increased, its indus- 
tries widened, and its finances improved. All conditions, 
indeed, were so encouraging as to call forth these words from 
President Washington: "The wealth and prosperity of 
these States will increase with that degree of rapidity as to 
baffle all calculation." 

SUMMARY 

As soon as the new government was in active operation, the 
President proceeded to choose his Cabinet officers. A tariff bill 
for protection as well as for revenue was passed, a census was 
taken, a national mint was established, and new states were 
admitted. It was soon discovered that the Constitution needed 
some changes and ten amendments were added. 

A war between France and England brought dissension in 
the President's Cabinet and much excitement throughout the 
country. England angered the United States by seizing Ameri- 
can seamen, but war was averted by Jay's treaty. An agree- 
ment with Spain fixed the southern boundary between the 
United States and Florida. 

Washington refused a third election and closed his eight 
years of service as President with a remarkbale address to the 
people, in which he urged them to cultivate peace and harmony 
with all nations. 



-**• 



CHAPTER XVII 

JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 

230. The Second President. — By this time the people 
had become divided into two political parties, the Federalists, 
and the Republicans or Democratic-Republicans. The Fed- 
eralists favored a strong, national government. The Repub- 
licans, on the other hand, believed in "state rights," or state 



194 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



supremacy. The former were called "loose construction- 
ists," and the latter "strict constructionists," from their 
method of interpreting the Constitution. 

.John Adams of Massachusetts, the choice of the Fed- 
eralists, was inaugurated the second President, March 4, 
1797, at Philadelphia. The national debt had already been 

funded, that is, put into bonds 
bea ring regular interest, and a part 
of it had been paid. Commerce 
was increasing and agriculture was 
everywhere flourishing. The South 
was especially prosperous because 
of the rapid increase of the cotton 
crop, brought about by the cotton 
gin. 

231. Efforts to prevent War. 
Jay's treaty, which had prevented 
a war with Great Britain, was in 
danger of causing hostilities With 
France. Accordingly President Adams sent a special com- 
mission of three men to France to treat with that country. 
The commissioners were John Marshall of Virginia, Charles 
Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, and Elbridge (Jerry 
of Massachusetts. The French minister, M. Talleyrand, re- 
fused to treat with them. Then it was intimated, through 
secret agents, that if they would pay a quarter of a million 
dollars to the French government they would be officially 
received and all matters of dispute would soon be settled. 
To this Pinckney replied, "Millions for defense, but not 
one cent for tribute" This saying at once became popular 
throughout the United States. The French government 
ordered the commissioners to quit the country at once. 
They forthwith fitted out privateers to prey upon our 




John Adams 



JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 195 

merchant vessels at sea, and this procedure soon led to open 
warfare. Such a state of affairs required the most careful 
attention of Congress. The nation must be made ready for 
war. A provisional army was ordered, and Wash- p re para- 
ington was commissioned lieutenant-general. tions for 
American men-of-war were instructed to seize any War * 
French vessel which should commit depredations on American 
commerce. Intercourse with France was suspended, and it 
seemed for a time that war could not be avoided. Presi- 
dent Adams, however, was well aware that we were still 
a small nation, hardly recovered from the effects of the long 
struggle with Great Britain. He therefore avoided a dec- 
laration of war. In 1799 Napoleon became First Napoleon's 
Consul of France, and the year following a treaty Treaty, 
was made and peace restored. 

232. Alien and Sedition Laws. — While these troubles 
with France were existing, Congress passed two laws which 
were very unpopular with the people and which did much 
to destroy the Federalist party and to give the control of 
the national government at the next presidential election 
to the Republicans. 1 The first of these laws was called The 
Alien Law. It authorized the President to order any foreigner 
whom he should judge to be dangerous to the peace and 
liberties of America to depart from the United States; those 
who refuse to obey the President's command in this re- 
spect were liable to be fined and imprisoned. A few weeks 
after the Alien Law was passed, the other, called The 
Sedition Law, was enacted. It imposed a fine and the 
penalty of imprisonment upon such persons as should utter 
any false, scandalous, or malicious writing against the 
government, Congress, or President, and upon such as should 

1 The party then called Republicans was the forerunner of the present 
Democratic party. 



196 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



combine or conspire together to oppose any measure of gov- 
ernment. 

These two laws were a great stretch of the power of Con- 
gress, such as had not been ventured upon since the adoption 
Opposed °f the Constitution. The opposing party at once 
by Repub- called them unconstitutional, claiming that they 
hcans. violated the first amendment, which prohibited 
Congress from passing any law to lessen freedom of speech or 
of the press. 

233. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. — The legis- 
latures of Kentucky and Virginia were bitterly opposed to 




The Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon 

both these laws, and passed resolutions asserting the doc- 
trine that a state might judge for itself how far the national 
authority should bind and control it. These resolutions 
were the first official utterances of the doctrine which South 
Carolina some thirty years later proclaimed, — namely, the 
doctrine of nullification. 

234. Death of Washington. — Washington, who had 
commanded the armies of the united colonies, fought the 
battles of the Revolution, and served as first President of 



JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 197 

the young republic, died at his home at Mount Vernon, on 
the 14th of December, 1799, not quite sixty-eight years of 
age. At news of his death the whole country was thrown 
into deep mourning. By his military ability and success, his 
constructive statesmanship, his dignity arid gentleness under 
all circumstances, his lofty patriotism and philanthropy, and 
his high moral character, Washington had endeared himself 
to all. The high estimation in which he was held is best 
described by the title given to him, and to him only, familiar 
now to every school child, "first in war, first in peace, and 
first in the hearts of his countrymen." 

235. The New Capital. — The seat of government had 
first been established in New York City, but was soon moved 
to Philadelphia. In 1800 it was transferred to its permanent 
home in the new city of Washington on the Potomac River. 
President Washington himself had chosen the site of the 
national capital. The land was originally the gift of Maryland 
and Virginia, but the part given by Virginia was afterwards 
returned. Washington located the position of the principal 
buildings and approved the plan for laying out the streets and 
squares. The city was named appropriately in his honor, but 
for a long time it was derisively called "The City of Streets 
without Houses," and "The Capital of Miserable Huts." 

236. Presidential Election (1800). — President Adams 
was the Federalist candidate for reelection, with Charles C. 
Pinckney for Vice-President. ■ Thomas Jefferson was the 
choice of the Republican party, with Aaron Burr for Vice- 
President. The Federalists, as has been stated, had made 
themselves unpopular by the Alien and Sedition laws, and 
the Republicans triumphed. According to the Constitution 
as it then stood, the candidate who received the largest 
number of electoral votes became President, and the one who 
received the next, Vice-President. As there were an equal 



198 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

number of votes for Jefferson and Burr, the election was 
The thrown into the House of Representatives. There 

Twelfth the choice fell upon Jefferson for President, and 
Amend- Bun for Vice-President. To guard against the 
recurrence of this difficulty of a tie vote, the twelfth 
amendment to the Constitution was framed. 

SUMMARY 

John Adams at his inauguration found the country in a 
prosperous condition. Jay's treaty, which may have prevented 
a war with England, very nearly caused a war with France. Pri- 
vateers preyed upon our vessels, and intercourse with France 
was suspended. An American army was raised and the nation 
made ready for war. Hostilities, however, were finally averted 
and peace was made. 

The difficulties with Prance were followed by the passage of 
the Alien and Sedition laws, which were so unpopular that they 
prevented the reelection of President Adams. 

During this administration, George Washington died, and 
the capita] was moved to its permanent home in the new 
city of Washington. 

— **»— 

CHAPTER XVIII 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 

237. The Inauguration. — The third President, Thomas 
Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, 
lefferson ^he diplomat who had represented his country in 
Demo- France, who had been governor of Virginia, Tinted 
cratic in Stales secretary of state, and Vice-President, was 
Character. in;mt , ura((l(1 M;in . h | iS ()i.' The new President 

was opposed to any display or unnecessary ceremony. His 

'Jefferson's acquirements were numerous and varied. It was said of 
him that he "could calculate an eclipse, survey an estate, tie an artery, 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 



199 



habits were simple, and some thought him too careless and 
undignified for the chief executive officer of an important 
republic. 

238. The New Party and its Policy. — Jefferson's election 
was the first political revolution 
since the adoption of the Con- 
stitution. His message 1 voiced 
the policy of the incoming Re- 
publican party. This policy was 
to foster carefully the state 
governments; to restrict the 
Federal power; to reduce the 
army and navy, the taxes, and 
the duties on imports to the 
lowest available point. The new 
party favored a currency of 
gold and silver only, and none 
of the leaders were in favor of 
prohibiting Congress from borrowing money. Jefferson par- 
doned all who had been imprisoned under the Alien and 
Sedition laws. Party spirit ran high and much bitterness 
existed in political circles. 




Thomas Jefferson. 



plan an edifice, try a cause, break a horse, dance a minuet, and play a 
violin." 

A Northern man said of him: "When he spoke of law, I thought he was 
a lawyer; when he talked about mechanics, I was sure he was an engineer; 
when he got into medicine, it was evident that he was a physician; when 
he discussed theology, I was convinced that he must be a clergyman; 
when he talked of literature, I made up my mind that I had run against a 
college professor who knew everything." 

1 Quite in keeping with his democratic character, Jefferson wrote his 
first message and sent it to the Senate and House to be read, instead of 
delivering it himself formally in person as both Washington and Adams 
had done. His example in this respect has been followed by all succeed- 
ing Presidents. 



200 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

239. The Province of Louisiana under Spain and France. 
Of the three European nations prominent in the perma- 
nent colonization of North America, France settled along 
the valley of the St. Lawrence River, — Quebec, Montreal, 
and the adjacent places, — England peopled the Atlantic 
coast from Maine to Georgia, and Spain planted colonies 
in Florida and Mexico. The treaties of 1763, however, 
greatly changed the map of North America; France was 
thereby swept entirely from the continent; Spain came 
into possession of the whole country west of the Missis- 
sippi River, and Great Britain had all east of the Mis- 
sissippi River, together with Canada. Florida was ceded back 
to Spain in 1783, and in the year 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte 
made a treaty with Spain by which that country gave up to 
France the vast territory west of the Mississippi called the 
Province of Louisiana. Napoleon intended to make Louisiana 
an important colony of France. 

240. The Louisiana Purchase. — Spain had previously 
agreed to allow New Orleans to be an open port of deposit 
to the people of the United States. In 1802, however, just 
before Louisiana was turned over to France, the Spanish 
governor closed the port of New Orleans to American vessels. 
This naturally alarmed the people of the Ohio and the Mis- 
sissippi valleys, since for them the port of New Orleans was 
the one door to the commerce of the world. Jefferson, to 
avoid any conflict with France, proposed to buy from France 
the island of New Orleans. This island is formed by the 
Iberville River, Lake Pontchartrain, the Gulf, and the Mis- 
sissippi. If the island could be bought, he reflected, then 
the United States would hold the left bank of the river to 
its mouth and the Mississippi could never be closed to us by 
any foreign power. Accordingly, Robert R. Livingston, our 
minister to France, was authorized by the President to buy 



202 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the island of New Orleans. Monroe, also, was sent over to 
aid him and to hasten the negotiations. 

At this time Napoleon was on the eve of a war with 
Great Britain, and he feared that power would capture New 
Orleans and take from France the whole province. He there- 
A Stretch ^ ore so ^ a ^ Louisiana to the United States, and the 
of Consti- treaty was signed early in 1803 by our ministers, 
national Livingston and Monroe. m Mr. Jefferson found 
y ' nothing in the Constitution giving authority to 
purchase more territory, but the treaty was so obviously for 
the good of the country that he signed it, and it was rati- 
fied by the Senate. Congress made the necessary appro- 
priations, and the price, fifteen million dollars, was paid. 

We thus doubled our territory and out of the newly acquired 
section have come twelve great states. This purchase was the 
Twelve most important transaction of Jefferson's eight 
States from years as President. Indeed it was one of the most 
the Pur- striking treaties ever made between two nations. 

ch3.SC • 

In time of peace one government sold to another a 
territory as large as all Europe west of Austria. 

241. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. — Many years before 
Jefferson became President he planned an exploring expedi- 
tion to discover the sources of the Missouri River and, if possi- 
ble, to find a passage to the Pacific. Very little was known of 
the country west of the Mississippi. Before the purchase of 
Louisiana was proposed, Jefferson had commissioned Meri- 
wether Lewis, his private secretary, and William Clark to organ- 
ize an expedition to explore the western land lying between the 
"Father of Waters" and the "Great South Sea," and, if possi- 
ble, to find a path either by river or by land to the Pacific. 

These two brave men left St. Louis in May, 1804, went 
up the Missouri River to the Mandan country, and wintered 
near where the city of Bismarck now stands. In the spring 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 



203 



following they pushed on and by early summer reached the 
snow-capped mountains. These they crossed, and floating 
down the Columbia River in canoes of their own construc- 
tion, they were at last gladdened by the sight of the great 
ocean. They reached the Pacific in November, 1805, and 
wintered on the shores of Young's Bay, near the mouth of 
the Columbia. The next year, 1806, starting as early as the 
condition of the country would allow, they retraced their 





William Clark. 



Meriwether Lewis. 



steps over the mountains and down the Missouri, and reached 
St. Louis in September, thus completing their marvelous 
journey of about eight thousand miles performed in two 
years and four months. This exploration gave us not only 
much information concerning the region traversed, but also 
an additional claim to the country drained by the river dis- 
covered by Captain Gray in 1792, and called by him after 
his ship, the Columbia. 



204 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

242. War with Tripoli. — For years the pirates of the 
Barbary States had preyed upon our commerce, seized the 
cargoes, destroyed the vessels, and sold the crews into slavery. 
.Meanwhile we had paid tribute to prevent the pirates from 
injuring our commercial trade. Then, when in 1801 we re- 
fused to pay their demands, the Dey of Tripoli declared war 
against the United States. A naval force was sent by our 
government to the Mediterranean, and, largely through the 
bravery of Stephen Decatur, the Dey made peace and the 
other Barbary States followed his lead. The war was ended 
and the tribute ceased. 

243. Troubles with Great Britain — The Embargo Act. — 
The British government persisted in what it called the "right 
of search and impressment," which meant the right to stop 
any vessel upon the high seas, search it for sailors that were 
British subjects, and force them into British service again. 
The British frigate Leopard fired upon the American frigate 
Chesapeake, killing and wounding twenty men, and took 
from the vessel four of the crew. England, however, disa- 
vowed the act. Still the English vessels continued to exer- 
cise the right of search. If any seamen thus taken from 
American vessels were not British subjects but were Ameri- 
can citizens, they had no opportunity to prove their claims. 
Here seemed to be good cause for war, but the United States 
Embargo was not ready for war. Congress passed an act 
Act. called The Embargo Act, which forbade all ves- 
sels to leave or enter American harbors, except for coast 
trade. This act proved a serious injury to our commerce, 
but caused less harm to the English trade, against which 
Non-Inter- it was aimed. Later, Congress repealed the Em- 
course Act. bargo Act. Tn its place it passed the Non-Inter- 
course Act, which forbade English and French vessels to 
come into our ports. 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 



205 



244. Hamilton and Burr. — Aaron Burr was Vice-President 
from 1801-1805, that is, during Jefferson's first term as Presi- 
dent. Party politics ran high and much bitterness of feeling 
and personal abuse prevailed among the leading politi- 
cians. A quarrel of long standing existed between Hamil- 
ton and Burr. Burr was un- 
principled and was intensely 
ambitious. He wanted to be 
governor of New York, and 
with a view to that end courted 
the friendship of the Federal- 
ists. In the election he was 
defeated, largely through the 
influence of Hamilton. In 1804 
Hamilton's Burr challenged 
Death. Hamilton to fight a 
duel. Hamilton unwillingly 
accepted and was killed. The 
tragedy occurred at Wee- 
hawken, on the Jersey shore 
opposite New York. The whole country was shocked. The 
high standing of the two men, one a Vice-President, the other 
a former secretary of the treasury, increased the sentiment 
felt by all against this barbarous practice of duelling. 

245. Burr's Southwestern Plot. — Burr was at once 
shunned, and was not renominated for Vice-President. Find- 
ing his political career ruined, he remained for a time in 
hiding and then began to plot a desperate scheme. In 1S06 
he crossed the Alleghenies and gathered to himself a company 
of reckless men, ready to follow him in his plans for power and 
self-glorification. It has never been fully known what, in 
detail, his project was, but it was pretty generally understood 
that he planned a military invasion of the Louisiana country 




Alexander Hamilton*. 



206 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



and Mexico, with the intention of organizing a new govern- 
ment there and putting himself at its head. His scheme failed, 
and the next year he was arrested and tried for high treason. 
Sufficient evidence to convict him was not found and he was 
Burr's Last discharged. He spent many years as an exile, and 
Days- finally returned to this country and practised law 

in the city of New York. He was never able to reinstate him- 
self in public favor. He died in neglect and poverty in 1836. 

246. The American Steamboat. — Improvements in trans- 
portation form one of the most important chapters in the 
history of our modern civilization. The excellent road build- 
ing of Rome constitutes one of the great legacies bequeathed 
to us by that ancient civilization. But it was left to the 
nineteenth century to bring into successful operation rail- 
roads and steamboats. Not wars, but the quiet triumphs of 
peace, have brought about these great improvements of 
modern life. 

became President, experiments were 
made' with a view 
to the propelling of 
boats by steam. Cap- 
tain Samuel Morey 
on the upper Con- 
necticut River, John 
Fitch at Philadelphia 
and New York, and 
James Rumsey on 
the Potomac River, made the attempt with more or less 
success. It was, however, left to Robert Fulton, under the 
patronage and largely at the expense of Robert \\. Living- 
ston, to make successful the American steamboat. Fulton 
experimented first in England, then in Paris, and finally in 
New York, where, in 1X07, he built the Clermont and made 



Soon after Washington 




The Clermont. 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 207 

a successful trial trip to Albany and back. From that time 
improvements have been rapid in steam navigation, until now 
the great trans-oceanic steam palaces, such as the ships of 
the American, the White Star, the Cunard, and the North 
German Lloyd steamship companies, are among the marvels 
of the age. 

247. Presidential Election (1808). — As Jefferson's second 
term of office drew towards the end, each party held a caucus 
of its members of Congress and nominated candidates for 
President and Vice-President. The Republicans nominated 
James Madison of Virginia for President, and George Clinton 
of New York for Vice-President. The Federalists nominated 
Charles C. Pinckney of South Carolina and Rufus King of 
New York. Madison and Clinton were chosen. 

SUMMARY 

The policy of Jefferson was almost the opposite of that of 
the two Presidents who had preceded him. A strict construc- 
tionist, he nevertheless authorized the purchase of Louisiana, 
though the Constitution gave Congress no express power to 
make such purchases. 

Lewis and Clark made their famous exploration of the Mis- 
souri and Columbia rivers and thereby gave the United States 
another claim to the Oregon country. 

War was waged with Tripoli. Great Britain continued to 
seize our seamen. In retaliation the Embargo and Non-Inter- 
course acts were passed and finally war was averted. 

Hamilton and Burr fought a duel in which Hamilton was 
killed. Burr afterward attempted to form a new government 
in the West, but was defeated in his scheme. The first steam- 
boat made her trial trip in 1807. 



208 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



CHAPTER XIX 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 



248. Relations with England. — When Madison came to 
the presidency he found our relations with England in a sad 
state. The Non-Intercourse Act had been a hindrance rather 
than a help to American commerce. It was repealed in 1810, 
the second year of Madison's presidency. For two years, how- 
ever, trade with Great Britain was forbidden. During all this 
time the President and his Cabinet did all in their power to pre- 
vent war without at the same time degrading the country. 

249. Immediate Causes of the War of 1812. — During 

the year 1811 the war spirit 
was greatly inflamed, especially 
among the Westerners. It was 
thought that the British had 
been inciting the northwestern 
Indians to war. At length 
Tecumseh, an Indian 
chief, formed a league 
of these red men and at their 
head proceeded against the forces 
of the United States. General 
William Henry Harrison (after- 
wards President) met the Indians 
at Tippecanoe and utterly 

routed them. This incident, with one other, did much to 
hasten the war. The other incident was that the 
Little Belt, a British war vessel, fired upon an 
American frigate, the President, without cause. 
250. War with Great Britain. — On the first 

of June, 1X12, President Madison sent a message to 




Tippecanoe. 



James Madison. 



Little 
Belt and 
The Presi- 
dent. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 



209 



Congress in which he mentioned four serious complaints 
against Great Britain. They were: 

1. Impressment of our seamen. 

2. Attacks upon American vessels. 

3. Injury to our commerce. 

4. Tampering with the Indians. 

Eleven days later, Congress declared war. The majority 
of the Republican party favored the war, but the Federalists 




From the painting by White. 

The Constitution Destroying the Guerriere. 



and the minority of the Republicans were bitterly opposed. 
The people of the Eastern states were quite generally against 
the war. 

Great Britain had a powerful navy, while we had scarcely 
a dozen vessels. Our army was small, made up of undis- 
ciplined militia under ignorant officers. Two attempts were 
made in that first year to invade Canada, both of which were 



210 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

disastrous to the American cause. But the action of our 
Success little navy more than atoned for the army's want 
of our of success. Captain Hull, in the frigate Consti- 

Nav y- tution, fought the British Guerriere off the coast 

of Newfoundland and in two hours' hard fighting com- 
pletely wrecked the British frigate. The Wasp defeated the 
Frolic off North Carolina, the United States captured the 
Macedonian, and the Constitution took the Java. The next 
year (1813) we lost the Chesapeake near Boston, and, in 1814, 
the Essex at Valparaiso in the Pacific Ocean. Then Commo- 
Perry's dore Oliver H. Perry, with his little fleet of ves- 
Victory. se i s built on Lake Erie, attacked the British fleet 
of six vessels and sixty-three guns and defeated it. He an- 
nounced his victory thus: "We have met the enemy and 
they are ours, — two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one 
sloop." Through Perry's victory the Americans gained com- 
plete control of Lake Erie. Various engagements followed, 
highly advantageous to the Americans. The British made 
an attempt to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain 
and the Hudson River, but were driven back by Commodore 
Mac- MacDonough, and in this encounter lost four 

Donough. vessels and two hundred men. MacDonough's 
victory ended the war in the North. 

251. Massacre at Fort Mims. — In August, 1813, occurred a 
frightful massacre, by the ('reek Indians, of five hundred men, 
women, and children in southern Alabama. These people 
had gone for protection to a stockade made for cattle by a 
fanner named Minis. They were suddenly attacked by a 
force of one thousand Creeks led by a half-breed named 
Weathersford. Andrew Jackson was dispatched 

Tflckson 

with a command of troops to avenge this massacre. 
He overran the whole Creek territory and forced the tribe to 
sue for peace. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 211 

Jackson then set a price on the capture of Weathersford, 
alive or dead. One day when the General was sitting in his 
tent, a big Indian chief walked in and said: "I am Weathers- 
ford. I am come to ask peace for my people. I Surrender 
am in your power ; do as you please with me. I am of Wea- 
a soldier. If I had an army I would still fight; thersford. 
but my warriors hear my voice no longer. Do as you will with 
me. You are a brave man. I ask not for myself, but for 
my people." Jackson, of course, was greatly astonished. 
Being a generous man, he gave the chief his liberty, on his 
promise to keep the peace in the future — and the chief kept 
his promise. 

252. British capture Washington and burn the Capitol. — 
The British warships blockaded the Atlantic ports, plunder- 
ing and burning many of the smaller towns. Admiral Cock- 
burn with his fleet blockaded the mouth of the Chesapeake 
Bay. In August, 1814, General Ross landed a force of nearly 
five thousand men in Maryland, and marched rapidly to the 
new city of Washington. This was at that time little more 
than a village of eight thousand people. He captured the 
city and burned the eapitol and other public buildings, includ- 
ing the President's mansion. Before setting the match to 
his bonfire it is said that Cockburn, followed by a mob of 
soldiers, entered the hall of the House of Representatives, 
climbed into the speaker's chair, and put the question, 
"Shall this harbor of Yankee democracy be burned?" The 
vote was unanimous in the affirmative and the torch was 
immediately applied. However, British sentiment in general, 
as Knight informs us in his history of England, disapproved 
of the destruction of these non-warlike buildings and con- 
demned the act as "an outrage inconsistent with civilized 
warfare." 

Meantime the President, his family, and his Cabinet fled 



212 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




G U L F ' F MEXICO 



Field of Operations in the War of 1812. 

from the city. Before she went, Mrs. Madison carefully 
Flight secreted Stuart's famous portrait of Washington 

of the and the original draft of the Declaration of Inde- 

President. pondence and thus saved them. So hurried was 
the retreat from the White House that the President's dinner 
remained upon the table, where the British soldiers found it 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 



213 



and feasted upon it. After burning these buildings the Brit- 
ish army retreated. 

253. The Star-Spangled Banner. — They sailed away to 
threaten Baltimore, but the fleet was unable to pass Fort 
McHenry. All day and until late at night the bombardment 
continued, but at dawn the American flag was still waving 
over the fort. During the night Francis S. Key rowed out to 
the British flag-ship, under a flag of truce, in an effort to get 
a personal friend paroled. The Admiral detained him on 



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L. V : «JP"' ,V a ** ■#' , '' - rtS m 




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S -f^ 


g» t 


' ''%J 




S5~9r 


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^l^B^ttL,.-;-*^ 


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From the painting by Carter. 

The Battle of New Orleans. 



board the flag-ship till morning. At dawn Key beheld with 
joy the stars and stripes still waving, and on the inspiration 
of the moment he wrote the popular national hymn, "The 
Star-Spangled Banner." The British, having failed to cap- 
ture Baltimore, sailed away. 

254. The Battle of New Orleans. — The British army 
then directed its operations farther south. On the 8th of 
January, 1815, was fought the decisive battle of New Orleans. 



214 ESSENTIALS OP UNITED STATES HISTORY 

General Andrew Jackson, having repulsed the British army at 
Pensacola, had hastened to New Orleans, feeling sure that the 
enemy would make its next attack there. Jackson's army, 
although composed of excellent fighting material, — brave 
frontiersmen used to rough border fights, — was utterly un- 
disciplined as to military strategy and tactics. The British 
army, on the other hand, was made up of well-trained soldiers 
led by superior officers, under the command of Sir Edward 
Pakenham. Jackson was skillful and energetic in his prepara- 
tions to defend New Orleans. He put the city under martial 
law, and built barricades of cotton bales and earthworks. 
With his five thousand men he was soon in readiness to re- 
ceive the British army, superior in numbers. The attacking 
party was brave and confident, but the Americans met its 
fire with patience and cool courage. The compact lines of 
the British soldiers were broken; they were repulsed every- 
Defeat of where; the dead lay in heaps. The battle was 
the British, brief: it lasted but two hours and the chief slaugh- 
ter occurred in less than half an hour. Pakenham and many 
officers of high rank were killed. Their loss in all was re- 
ported to be seven hundred dead on the field, and twice as 
many wounded. The American loss in the main battle did 
not exceed eight killed and thirteen wounded. Jackson after- 
wards, in a letter to a friend, gave his loss as six killed and 
seven wounded. The British immediately retired and sailed 
away from the southern coast. This defeat of Pakenham was 
one of the greatest victories of modern times. 1 

255. The Hartford Convention. While the war was in 

'At the beginning of the war Jackson had been ordered to raise two 
thousand troops and proceed to Natchez. While at that place, an order 
came for him to disband his army. Jackson was indignant. He declared 
it was unworthy any government to enlist a body of men, march them five 
hundred miles from their homes, and then turn them off without food, 
money, or means of transportation. He refused to obey the order and 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 215 

progress, opposition to it was increasing in certain quarters, 
especially in New England. In December, 1814, twenty-six 
delegates from the New England states met in a convention 
at Hartford, Connecticut. The convention sat for three 
weeks with closed doors. The fact that its discussions were 
secret strengthened the impression already prevalent that the 
object of the convention was treasonable. It was commonly 
believed that a dissolution of the Union was urged. The 
published reports of the convention were practically as fol- 
lows : that no new state be admitted to the Union except by 
a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress; that Congress 
have no power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days ; 
that no President be eligible for reelection; that a Presi- 
dent shall not be elected from the state which has furnished 
the preceding President; and that the proceeds of Federal 
taxes be turned over to the several states in which they were 
collected. 

The people of New England, in general, were hostile to the 
movement. The political prospects of the dele- End of the 
gates were ruined, and the Federal party here re- Federalists, 
ceived its death-blow. 

256. Treaty of Peace. — On the 24th of December, 1814, 
commissioners, American and British, signed a treaty at 
Ghent, in Belgium, which was ratified by both nations. Al- 
though the war had not been fought through to a result, yet 
England was willing to make peace because of European 
complications, a/id America, because of the dissatisfaction 
felt by so many of our people against the war. The issues 

marched his men back to Tennessee at his own expense. He was after- 
wards reimbursed by the government. He had three good horses, but he 
himself walked and gave his horses to sick men to ride. He was strong 
and " tough." On the march some one said, " The General is tough, tough 
as hickory." Hence he was called " Old Hickory," and this name clung to 
him all his life. 



216 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

which had brought on the war were not settled by the treaty, 
and the relations between the two countries appeared to be 
about the same as before the war. Respect for the United 
States, however, was strengthened in Europe, and England 
never afterwards attempted to enforce her claim to the right 
of search and impressment. Thus the war brought commer- 
cial independence to America. The treaty was made before 
the battle of New Orleans was fought, but news of it had not 
yet reached America. 

257. Affairs at Home. — During Madison's two terms 
our government was so much concerned with European dif- 
ficulties and the war with Great Britain, that but few domes- 
tic questions could receive attention. Two efforts, however, 
were made to charter a national bank, the second of which 
was successful, in 1816. Two new states were admitted to 
the Union, Louisiana in 1812, and Indiana in 1816. 

258. Presidential Election (181 2). — Madison's second elec- 
tion was by a vote of one hundred and twenty-eight for him, 
against eighty-nine for DeWitt Clinton of New York. Dur- 
ing this second term Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts was 
Vice-President. 

In 1816 the candidates of the Republican party were James 
Monroe for President, and Daniel D. Tompkins of New York 
for Vice-President. The Federalist candidate for President 
was Rums King of New York, and no nomination was made 
for Vice-President. Monroe and Tompkins were elected 
by a large majority. 

SUMMARY 

War with Great Britain was the chief event of Madison's 
administration. Many of the principal battles of this war were 
fought on the sea. The United States had only a few vessels, 
which, however, usually came off victorious. The British cap- 
tured and burned the city of Washington, but were repulsed at 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825) 



217 



Baltimore. The most brilliant victory of the war, the defeat 
of the British at New Orleans, was fought after the treaty of 
peace had been signed. The war did not settle the difficulties 
which had caused it, except that England never again attempted 
to search American vessels. The war was opposed by many 
of the people of New England. Delegates from the five states 
met at Hartford and discussed various questions in secret. 
Their deliberations resulted in nothing but their own political 
ruin. 

— «a^ — 



CHAPTER XX 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (18 17-1825) 

259. Era of Good Feeling. — The Federalist party had 
disappeared and the people were no longer divided on po- 
litical questions. Hence Monroe's administration has been 
called the Era of Good Feeling. There was no opposition to 
Monroe's second election, in 1820, and he received every vote 
but one. Washing- 




ton, as hat been 
already stated, was 
the sole President 
to receive all the 
electoral votes. 

260. The Pur- 
chase of Florida. — 
Florida was a Span- 
ish province till 
1763, when it was 
ceded by Spain to 
Great Britain. It was ceded back to Spain in 1783. Spain, 
however, took but little interest in preserving order there, and 
the country was overrun with freebooters, Seminole Indians, 



East and West Florida. 



218 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and runaway slaves. Indeed, the social conditions there were 
such as to be a constant menace to the people of Georgia. 
Various attempts were made to purchase the country from 
Spain. Finally a treaty was negotiated in 1819, by which 
Spain transferred the two provinces of East and West Florida 
to the United States for the sum of five million dollars. The 
final ratification of this treaty was delayed for two years, 
but in 1821 we came into possession of the entire province. 
It was organized as a territory soon after the treaty was 
ratified, and was admitted as a state in 1845. By this 
Treaty treaty the United States gave up to Spain all her 
with claim to Texas derived from the purchase of 

Spam. Louisiana, and Spain in return yielded to us all 

her claim to the Oregon territory. The forty-second par- 
allel west of the Rocky Mountains was made the dividing 
line between the Spanish provinces and the United States. 

261. Slave States and Free States. — As early as 1787, in 
the Federal Convention, the slavery question was a bone of 
contention among the states. After the invention of the 
cotton gin, slave labor, which was already dfri important 
factor in the South, became more profitable. By the year 
1800, all the Southern states were slave states, while all 
the Northern states were practically free. There were at 
that time, therefore, eight free states and eight slave states. 
Consequently the United States had sixteen slave-state sena- 
tors and an equal number of free-state senators. Henceforth 
Balance of for half a century the balance of power in the 
Power. Senate was carefully preserved in the admission 
of new states. New states were admitted as follows: 

In 1803, Ohio, free state; in 1812, Louisiana, slave state. 

In 1816, Indiana, free state; in 1817, Mississippi, slave 
state. 

In 1818, Illinois, free state; in 1819, Alabama, slave state. 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825) 219 

In the year 1820, Missouri applied to be admitted as a slave 
state. 

262. The Missouri Compromise. — A large part of Missouri 
lay just across the river from Illinois. The people of that 
state and other Northern states did not want Missouri to be 
admitted into the Union as a slave state. Maine was ask- 
ing for admission, and became a free state in 1820. The 
South insisted that Missouri should come in as a slave state 
to keep the balance of power in the Senate. 

After a long and angry debate, a bill known as the Missouri 
Compromise Bill was adopted in 1820. This bill provided 
that Missouri should be admitted as a slave state, but that 
there should be no slavery in any other portion of the 
Louisiana Purchase north of the parallel 36° 30', the south- 
ern boundary of Missouri. The result of this compromise was 
to postpone the settlement of the slavery question, and for 
thirty years longer new free and slave states were admitted 
alternately, so that the balance of power was still preserved 
in the Senate. 

263. The Monroe Doctrine. — The Spanish colonies in 
South and Central America and in Mexico had, previous to 
the time we are now considering, one after another thrown 
off the yoke of Spain and become independent states. Spain 
wished to reclaim them, but was not able alone to accom- 
plish her desire. She therefore sought aid from other Euro- 
pean nations. France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia formed 
what was called the Holy Alliance. This alliance Holy 
was for protection against revolutionary move- Alliance, 
ments within their own states. England and the United 
States interpreted this action as the beginning of an attempt 
to compel the former colonies of Spain, which had revolted, 
to return to their allegiance. President Monroe consulted 
Ex-President Jefferson, who said: "Our first and fundamen- 



220 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



tal maxim should be, never to tangle ourselves in the broils 
of Europe; our second, never to suffer Europe to intermed- 
dle with Cis-Atlantic affairs." 

President Monroe, in his message to Congress, December, 
1823, announced the three principles known in history as 
the Monroe Doctrine. These were: 

1. Any European power, which should interfere with any 
American government whose independence had been acknowl- 
edged by the United States, "for the purpose of oppressing 
them or controlling in any other manner their destiny," 
would be considered by us as showing an "unfriendly dis- 
position towards the United States." 

2. "It is impossible that the Allied Powers should extend 

their political system to any portion 
of either continent [North or South 
America] without endangering our 
peace and happiness. ... It is . . . 
impossible that we should behold 
such interposition, in any form, 
with indifference." 

3. "The American Continents, 
by the free and independent con- 
dition which they have assumed 
and maintain, are henceforth not 
to be considered as subjects for 
future colonization by any Euro- 
pean Power.'' 

264. Tariff for Protection. — After the war with England 
was over, petitions for an increase of duties on imported 
goods were made to Congress. In 1816 a new tariff bill was 
passed, raising the duty on many kinds of wares, especially 
cotton and woolen goods. Four years later an attempt was 
made to pass a bill for a higher protective tariff, but by one 




James Monroe. 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825) 



221 



vote it failed to become a law. In 1824 a new tariff bill was 
passed, furnishing greater protection to home industries. 

265. Naval Force on the Great Lakes. — In the year 1817 
the United States and Great Britain agreed that the naval 
force on the lakes between this country and Canada should 
be limited. Neither of the two powers should have more 
than two vessels on the upper lakes, and only one on Ontario 
and one on Champlain, each vessel to be limited to one hun- 







Routes of Travel from the Seaboard to the Mississippi. 

(Note the Cumberland Road, the Erie Canal, the Pennsylvania Canal, and the route down 
the Ohio River.) 

dred tons burden, with but a single cannon. These vessels 
were to act as a police force to keep order and see that the 
revenues were properly collected. It was further agreed 
that no vessel should be built on the Great Lakes for war 
purposes. 

266. The Erie Canal. — DeWitt Clinton, governor of New 
York, advocated the building of a canal across the state 



222 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to connect Lake Erie at Buffalo with the Hudson River at 
Albany. In 1825 he succeeded in accomplishing this great 
enterprise. The canal traversed a wilderness, uninhabited 
or only sparsely settled. It was almost four hundred miles in 
length, and cost very nearly eight million dollars. How- 
ever, it proved a great success and has continued useful to 
the present day. 

267. Presidential Election (1824-1825). — In 1824 there 
were no party nominations. A few members of Congress 
nominated William H. Crawford, Tennessee presented Andrew 
Jackson, Kentucky Henry Clay, and Massachusetts John 
Quincy Adams. The electors gave Jackson ninety-nine votes, 
Adams eighty-four, Crawford forty-one, and Clay thirty- 
seven. As no one had a majority, the election was thrown 
into the House of Representatives, and there Adams was 
chosen. The country was then, as always before and since, 
divided as to the powers of the Federal government into two 
parties, "strict constructionists" and "loose construction- 
ists." Crawford and Jackson were "strict constructionists," 
and Adams and Clay were "loose constructionists." The 
"strict constructionists" held that the Federal government 
was limited to the powers expressly granted by the Consti- 
tution. The "loose constructionists" maintained that in the 
Constitution certain powers may be implied which are not 
expressed; that the Constitution is not to be interpreted 
literally; and that new questions were not provided for in the 

Constitution. 

SUMMARY 

The principal events of the Era of Good Feeling were the 
purchase of Florida, the beginning of the slavery controversy, 
the Missouri Compromise, the adoption of the policy known as 
the Monroe Doctrine, and the opening of the Erie Canal. 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829) 223 

CHAPTER XXI 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829) 

268. Conditions in 1825. — When John Quincy Adams 
became President, our country was under conditions very 
different from those which prevailed during the presidency 
of his father, a quarter of a century before. Twenty-five 
years had witnessed great progress. The territory was twice 
as large. The population had grown from four millions to 
eleven millions. The business centers along the Atlantic 
coast had developed from small' towns into large cities. 
The tide of emigration was moving westward with increas- 
ing rapidity, and, as a consequence, the center of population 
had changed from the eastern side of Chesapeake Bay almost 
to the western boundary of Maryland. The number of 
states had increased from sixteen to twenty-four. As yet, 
there were no railroads and land transportation had made no 
decided progress. Clinton's "big ditch," however, and other 
shorter canals had to some extent lessened the difficulties of 
conveying freight. 1 Moreover, transportation by water had 
greatly improved. Steamboats had come into common use, 
especially on the Mississippi River. The steamship Savannah 

1 The Cumberland Road, also known as the "Great National Pike," 
was built by Congress and was intended to make easier communication be- 
tween the Ohio Valley and the Atlantic seaboard. The first section from 
Cumberland, Maryland, to the Ohio River was begun in 1806 and was 
opened to the public in 1820. Later the road was extended to Indian- 
apolis and afterwards to the Mississippi. It cost nearly seven million 
dollars. The Cumberland Road was a great aid in helping forward the 
development of the West. As the roadbed was smooth and the grades 
were easy, it was usually followed by the many bands of emigrants who 
were at that time leaving the East for the more fertile regions of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. See map on page 221. 



224 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



had already crossed the Atlantic, and the Enterprise had 
steamed round the Cape of Good Hope. 

269. Industries. — Fanning continued to be the chief 
occupation. Wheat, Indian corn, barley, oats, potatoes, 
and hides were the products of the North. Cotton, sugar, 
Indian corn, rice, tobacco, and indigo were exported from the 
South. Many cotton and woolen mills had been built in 
the Eastern states, where spinning, weaving, and indeed all 
the processes of manufacture were carried on by water power. 




The Center of Population. 

270. Education. — A rapid advance had been made in 
educational advantages. Public schools had multiplied, many 
academies had been established, and there were scattered 
throughout the country more than fifty colleges. The num- 
ber of newspapers had increased and literature was improv- 
ing. 

271. Church and State. — From the beginning the trend 
of sentiment had been against a state church. The doc- 
trine of "freedom in religious concernments" had been 
adopted and had flourished until, at the period we are con- 
sidering, it was almost universal. During the first quarter 
of the century religion had advanced, churches on the 
voluntary principle had been established almost everywhere, 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829) 225 

and great progress was evident in the uplifting of mankind 
and the enlightenment of the race. 

272. Political Parties. — The Era of Good Feeling was 
past. New political parties had sprung up and were now 
divided on important questions. The administration party, 
with Adams and Clay as leaders, had favored a „ 

Protective 
protective tariff and the opinion that internal im- Tariff Im- 
provements might be made by the national gov- tional and 
ernment. The other party, under the leadership State 
of Calhoun, Jackson, and Crawford, opposed the 
two chief tenets of the governing party and held to the 
doctrine of state rights and the 
limited powers of the Federal gov- 
ernment. The party in power 
was now known as National Re- 
publicans, and the followers of 
Jackson and Calhoun were called 
Democrats. A few years later 
the National Republicans took 
the name of the Whig party. 

273. The Deaths of two Ex- 
Presidents. — John Adams, the 
second President, and Thomas 

Jefferson, the third President, died 

,, , T , . 100/l John Quincy Adams. 

on the same day, July 4, 1826, 

the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the American Dec- 
laration of Independence. Just before his death, Adams said, 
"Thomas Jefferson still survives." But Jefferson had already 
expired. 

274. The New Tariff of 1828. — The idea of "protection 
to home industries" was now supported by the majority in 
Congress, and that body passed a new tariff law of high pro- 
tective duties. The duties on wool and hemp, lead, iron, and 




226 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



molasses, were very high. The bill, as passed, satisfied no- 
body, but was a compromise between the different sections of 

the country. It came to be called 
the Tariff of Abominations. It 
was especially disliked by the 
Southern states. Calhoun, who 
was then Vice-President, proposed 
that South Carolina pronounce 
the act "null and void" in that 
state. 

275. Presidential Election 
(1828). —The National Repub- 
lican party nominated Adams for 
President, and Richard Rush of 
Pennsylvania for Vice-President. 
The candidates of the Democratic 
party were Jackson and Calhoun. Jackson received about 
twice as many votes as Adams and was elected. Both John 
Quincy Adams and his father were able and patriotic men, 
but neither of them was a popular or successful politician. 




John C. Calhoun. 



SUMMARY 

At the time of John Quincy Adams's administration the 
country showed great progress. Population had increased, 
transportation facilities had improved, educational advan- 
tages had developed, and religious freedom had advanced. 
New political parties had been formed which were opposed to 
each other on the question of national and state rights and 
protective tariffs. 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (182&-1837) 227 

CHAPTER XXII 

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 

276. The New President. — Andrew Jackson was a man 
of vigorous personality. He had lived a frontier life, and was 
"rough and ready." He had a strong will and paid little 
regard to precedents. He was a brave soldier and had won 
distinction fighting the Indians in Florida and the British 
at New Orleans. He was, however, without administrative 
experience. Hitherto the employees in all the departments 
at Washington had been subject to few changes. In forty 
years less than two hundred office-holders had been removed. 
Jackson's motto was, "To the victor belong the spoils," and 
he proceeded at once to make more than a thou- The Spoils 
sand changes. Men of little experience filled the System, 
positions made vacant. This course, inaugurated by Jackson 
and known as the "spoils system," has been followed more 
or less by every President since Jackson. 

277. Hayne's and Webster's Speeches in the Senate. — In 
the year 1830, a great debate took place in the Senate between 
Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina and Daniel Webster of 
Massachusetts. Hayne, in a two days' speech, defended the 
right of a state to nullify a law of Congress. He claimed 
that every state had a right to decide for itself whether any 
particular law was in accordance with the Constitution. He 
was well versed in the history of our country and he quoted 
the Virginia and the Kentucky resolutions and the doings of 
the Hartford Convention. His speech was one of power, show- 
ing that he was an able statesman, a careful student of history, 
and a great orator. Webster replied in a three days' speech 
which has to this day been considered, both at home and 
abroad, one of the noblest specimens of oratory in the English 



228 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



language. Hayne had made a bitter attack upon New Eng- 
land, upon Mr. Webster personally, and upon the character 
and patriotism of Massachusetts. Webster argued that the 
Constitution was the supreme law of the land. He called 
nullification "revolution." One of Webster's biographers 
writes of this speech: "He said, as he alone could say, the 
people of the United States are a nation, they are the masters 
of an empire, their union is indivisible, and the words which 

then rang out in the Senate 
chamber have come down 
through long years of political 
conflict and of civil war, until 
at last they arc part of the po- 
litical creed of every one of 
his fellow-countrymen." He 
argued with great power that 
"liberty and union, now and 
forever," are "one and insep- 
arable." 

Later Hayne resigned his seat 
in the Senate and was elected 
governor of South Carolina. 
Calhoun resigned his office of 
Vice-President, and was elected 
to succeed Hayne in the Senate. 

278. South Carolina and Nullification. — In those days the 
most important question in the minds of the people was the 
tariff. Four years after the tariff law of 1828, a new tariff 
bill was substituted, more uniform and with a lower average 
rate of duty. By this later bill the duties upon goods im- 
ported into the South were lower ; yet the bill still held to 
the principle of protection, and to this principle Calhoun and 
South Carolina were opposed. 




Daniel Webster. 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 



229 



A convention was held at Columbia, South Carolina, in 
November, 1832, which passed an Ordinance of Nullification. 
It declared the tariff acts null and void in South Carolina, for- 
bade the payment of duties under these acts, and threatened 
to withdraw from the Union if the Federal government should 
attempt to enforce these laws in that state. Jackson, how- 
ever, determined to preserve the integrity of the Union. The 
next month he issued a proclamation to the people of South 
Carolina, warning them that the general government could 
not and would not yield to their demands, and The 
insisting that the duties must be collected there Revenue 
as in the other states. Jackson then asked author- Collection 

Bill 

ity from Congress to collect the duties in South 

Carolina by force if necessary, and in response Congress passed 

the so-called Force Bill. 

279. Clay's Compromise Tariff Bill. — In 1833 Henry Clay 
introduced a new tariff bill, by 
which duties were to be de- 
creased regularly every two years 
until 1842, when they were to be 
brought to a uniform rate of 
twenty per cent upon all imports. 
This bill became a law and South 
Carolina repealed the Nullifica- 
tion Act. Thus peace was re- 
stored. By this compromise the 
protectionists, on their part, had 
lost, for the time being at least, 
and South Carolina, on her part, 
in her attempt at nullification 
had received no support from any other state. 

280. Presidential Election (1832). — The Democrats nomi- 
nated Jackson for reelection, and Martin Van Buren of 




Henry Clay. 



230 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

New York for Vice-President. The National Republicans 
nominated Henry Clay of Kentucky for President, and John 
Sergeant of Pennsylvania for Vice-President. Jackson and 
Van Buren were elected by a large majority. 

281. The United States Bank. — Jackson feared the power 
of the United States Bank, which had been in operation since 
1S1G. He thought the bank was opposed to him politically, 
and he determined to destroy it, if he could. The bank had 
been chartered for twenty years, and the Supreme Court of 
the United States had pronounced the charter valid. In 
1832 Congiess passed a bill re-chartering it, and Jackson 
Jackson vetoed the bill. In his veto message he pronounced 
vetoes a the bank "unnecessary, useless, expensive, hostile 
Re-charter. ^ Q ^ e people, and possibly dangerous to the govern- 
ment." The proposition made in Congress to pass the bill 
over the veto did not receive a two-thirds vote and was there- 
fore lost. 

282. Jackson removes the Deposits. — The government's 
business was done by this bank and there the funds were 
deposited. The President determined to secure the with- 
drawal of these government funds and their transference to 
certain specified state banks. By the bank charter no one 
but the secretary of the treasury could remove the public 
money. Jackson ordered the secretary, William J. Duane, 
to do this. Duane refused and was promptly dismissed. 
Roger B. Taney was then appointed to the office. He at 
once withdrew the deposits. In consequence the bank, to 
protect its credit, called in its loans and refused to lend any 
more money. Thus a large part of the currency of the 
country was locked up, and a financial stringency resulted 
which affected all classes of people. Taney's appointment 
was not confirmed by the Senate, and later lie resigned the 
office. As a result of the removal of the deposits, no United 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 231 

States bank has since been chartered, a fact in itself generally 
accepted as beneficial. Occurring in the manner it did 
however, the "removal" was unfortunate, since it aroused a 
severe political storm and was, in a measure, responsible for 
the later financial panic. 

283. Surplus Revenue Distributed among the States. — This 
heated discussion of financial affairs and the stringency of the 
money market called attention to the fact that there was a 
surplus in the United States treas- 
ury. For years the revenue had 
been in excess of the expenses, 
until there was a surplus of nearly 
thirty million dollars in the treas- 
ury. What should be done with 
this surplus ? Some said to use it 
for some important public im- 
provement. But both President 
and Congress were opposed to in- 
ternal improvements at the ex- 

„ ,, .. , Andrew Jackson. 

pense ol the national treasury. 

Congress did not wish to lower the tariff so as to reduce the 

revenue. Finally it was voted (1S36) to distribute the surplus 

among the several states. This was done in proportion to 

the population, — in other words, according to the number 

of representatives each state had in Congress. 

284. The Cherokees in Georgia. — The Cherokee Indians 
in northwestern Georgia had attained a considerable de- 
gree of civilization. One of their number, Sequoyah, whose 
English name was George Guess, had invented a wonderful 
alphabet, almost the only syllabic alphabet in use in the 
world. The lands of the Indians had been guaranteed to 
them forever by solemn treaties with the United States, but 
the state of Georgia wanted these lands and finally succeeded 




232 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



refuses to 
Support 
the Court 



in securing them. The Indians were moved (1838) beyond 
the Mississippi by the United States Army. Throughout 
Tackson the controversy the President refused to carry 
out the treaties or to enforce the decision of the 
Supreme Court. When the court decided in favor 
of the Cherokees, Jackson is reported to have said : 
"Well, John Marshall has made his decision; now let us see 
him enforce it." John Marshall was the chief justice of the 
Supreme Court of the United States. Surely the President 
knew that it is the duty of the executive to enforce the 
mandate of the judiciary. 

285. New States. — Since the admission of Missouri, 




An Early Railroad Train. 

which had been the subject of such violent discussion, no 
new state had been admitted into the Union for a period of 
fifteen years. Then in 1836 Arkansas was admitted as a 
slave state, and the next year Michigan came in as a free 
state. Thus the balance of power between the free and slave 
states was still preserved in the Senate. 

286. Industrial Progress. — A great industrial and inven- 
tive period was at hand. Already railroads had begun to be 
built here as well as in England. The first railroad in Eng- 
land was completed in 1830, and the very next year the Bal- 
timore and Ohio Railroad went into operation for a short 
distance. Before the end of Jackson's presidency, steam cars 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 233 

were running over nearly two thousand miles of iron rails. 
With the coming of the steam car, interest in canal building 
had rapidly subsided. Anthracite coal had come into use, 
friction matches had been invented, and the machine reaper 
had made. its appearance. 

287. Presidential Election (1836). — The Democrats nomi- 
nated for President Martin Van Buren of New York, and for 
Vice-President Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky. The old 
National Republican party was now called the Whig party. 
It nominated for President William Henry Harrison of Ohio, 
and for Vice-President Francis Granger of New York. Van 
Buren was elected by a large majority. The vote for Vice- 
President was divided between Johnson, Granger, and John 
Tyler of Virginia, and was finally referred to the Senate, 
where Johnson was elected. 

SUMMARY 

The tariff caused dissension and South Carolina threatened 
to withdraw from the Union if the law was not repealed. Peace 
was restored by Clay's Compromise Tariff. 

Jackson inaugurated the spoils system, vetoed the bill to re- 
charter the United States Bank, removed the government de- 
posits and loaned them to state banks. Congress divided the 
surplus among the various states. Steam cars were first intro- 
duced into America. 

The Cherokee Indians were moved from their lands in Georgia 
to reservations beyond the Mississippi, contrary to the treaties 
which the United States had previously made with them. 




234 I >SENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

CHAPTER XXIII 

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841) 

288. The President's Policy. — Van Buren had been a 
warm supporter of Jackson, and on taking the President's 
chair, March 4, 1837, he announced that he should follow out 

the policy inaugurated by Jackson, 
or, to use his own words, should 
"follow in the footsteps of his illus- 
trious predecessor." 

289. The Financial Panic. - 
Shortly after the closing of the United 
States Bank, many state banks 
sprang up all over the country. A 
large number of these had very lit- 
tle or no money and no financial 
Martin van Buren. „+ i: „ t>i : i 

standing. Ihey issued paper money 
which never could be redeemed. These were called "wild- 
cat banks." When they failed, the sound currency was 
greatly contracted and a panic ensued. Jackson then issued 
The Specie a "Specie Circular" directing that nothing but 
Circular. g \(\ or silver should be received as payment for 
public land. As a result, more "wild-cat banks" failed. 
Money was hoarded and became scarce. Disaster followed. 
The prices of the necessities of life became very high. In 
New York City bread riots occurred. The failure of business 
firms became numerous all over the country. Specie pay- 
ments were suspended. This year (1837) proved to be the 
most disastrous year for business the United States had ever 
seen. 

290. The Sub-Treasury. — Jackson had placed the govern- 
ment deposits in various state banks. Van Buren proposed 



VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841) 235 

to Congress the establishment of sub-treasuries, and a bill to 
this effect was drafted. His purpose was to "make the 
government the custodian of its own funds, in its own 
vaults." The bill, however, did not pass till the year 1840. 
This plan proved advantageous and has for the most part 
been followed ever since. 

291. Presidential Election (1840). — The panic of 1837 
caused a reaction against the Democrats, because many 
attributed it to the laws passed by that party. The Whigs 
nominated for President William Henry Harrison, their 
standard-bearer four years before, and for Vice-President 
John Tyler of Virginia. The Democrats nominated Van 
Buren for reelection, but left the nomination of the Vice- 
President to the several states. A new party, the Abo- 
litionist or Liberty party, named James G. Birney of New 
York for President, and Francis Lemoyne of Pennsylvania 
for Vice-President. Then was fought a spirited political 
contest. The Whigs introduced songs, transparencies, torch- 
light processions. The campaign was known as the "log- 
cabin and hard-cider" campaign. "Tippecanoe and Tyler 
too" was the popular refrain of this party. Harrison and 
Tyler were elected by an overwhelming vote. 

SUMMARY 

The state banks failed, and a panic resulted which affected 
the country disastrously. The question of the place of deposit 
for United States funds was settled by the establishment of 
sub-treasuries. 



236 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



CHAPTER XXIV 

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) 

292. The Death of Harrison. — William Henry Harrison 
was the son of Benjamin Harrison, one of the signers of the 
Declaration of Independence. He had been active in mili- 
tary and public affairs for nearly half a century. As governor 
and superintendent of Indian affairs in the Territory of In- 
diana, he- had greatly aided the white settlers and bettered the 




William Henry Harrison. 



John Tyler. 



condition of the Indians. In the War of 1812, Harrison had 
fought with bravery and skill, and next to Andrew Jackson 
was the most popular hero of that conflict. He was called 
the " Hero of Tippecanoe " because of his famous victory over 
the northwestern Indian tribes, in the battle of Tippecanoe. 
President Harrison took his seat March 4, 1841, and a 
month later, after a short illness, died at the White House. 
The whole country was greatly shocked, as this was the first 
death of a President while in office. The Vice-President, 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) 237 

John Tyler, immediately took the oath of office and became 
President, so that tht business of government went on with- 
out interruption. Tyler, though chosen by the Whigs, was a 
strong, determined man, with Democratic princi- T ler 
pies. A Whig Congress passed two bills to rees- Opposed 
tablish the National Bank, which were promptly t0 Whigs, 
vetoed by Tyler. Many of the Whigs thought that he had 
proved a traitor to his party and all the members of his 
Cabinet at once resigned, except Daniel Webster. 

293. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. — Webster had 
already begun negotiations with the British special minister 
at Washington, Lord Ashburton, for a treaty to settle the 
disputes concerning our northeastern boundary. This treaty 
was made and signed in August, 1842, and was finally con- 
firmed by the Senate and by the British Parliament. It 
settled definitely the boundary between the United States 
and the British provinces from Maine to the Rocky Moun- 
tains. In May, 1843, Webster resigned from the Cabinet. 

294. Texas. — In the year 1822, Mexico revolted from 
Spain, and two years later set up a republican government 
with a constitution similar to ours. The eastern portion of 
this new republic was called the "State of Texas andCoahuila." 
As it bordered upon Louisiana, many Southerners moved 
over the line and settled there, taking their slaves with them. 
In 1835, under the lead of these Americans, Texas revolted 
from Mexico and, a little later, established a government of 
her own, under the name of the "Republic of Sam 
Texas." General Sam Houston, who had gone Houston, 
to Texas from Tennessee and had command of the Texan 
army, became the first president of the "Lone Star Re- 
public," as it was generally called. In 1838 Texas began to 
plan for the annexation of that country to the United 
States. It was finally annexed by a vote of the two houses 



238 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of Congress, and the hill was signed by President Tyler, 
March 3, 1845. Texas was admitted as a state the following 
December. 

295. The Dorr War in Rhode Island. — The colonial 
government of Rhode Island was based upon a charter granted 
by King Charles II in 1663. When the Revolution occurred, 
most of the colonies, on becoming states of the new republic, 
framed constitutions for themselves. Rhode Island merely 
threw off allegiance to Great Britain and continued her govern- 
ment according to the old charter. The General Assembly, 
at an early date, had limited the voting privilege to land- 
owners and their eldest sons. The number of representa- 
tives from each town in the General Assembly had remained 
the same for nearly two hundred years, though the number 
of inhabitants had greatly changed. Various efforts had 
been made to extend the suffrage and to make more equal the 
town representation, but the General Assembly would not 
give up the power it had held for so long a time. 

Soon after the presidential election of 1840, a plan for 
an extension of suffrage in Rhode Island began to be agitated 
anew, and in the winter of 1841-1842 two new constitutions 
were framed. One of these was prepared by a convention 
legally summoned by the legislature, but it was defeated by 
a vote of the people. The other was made by the suffrage 
party in a convention called and held without forms of law, 
and voted upon by all the people, legal voters and non-voters 
alike. This constitution they declared adopted, and under its 
provisions state officers were elected, although only the suf- 
frage party voted. Thomas W. Dorr, a brilliant lawyer, was 
chosen governor under this constitution. Then came a clash 
between the existing charter government and this revolution- 
ary government. A bitter and even bloody struggle seen km 1 
at hand, and President Tyler, who was known to favor the 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) 239 

charter government, sent troops to Fort Adams to be used 
if needed. After several months of intense excitement, the 
"rebellion" collapsed and Dorr fled from the state. The next 
year a third constitution was legally adopted, Suffrage 
which granted most of the desired changes. This Legally 
went into operation in May, 1843. Dorr returned Extended - 
to the state, was arrested, tried for high treason, convicted, 
and sentenced to imprisonment for life. After one year, he 
was set at liberty, and his civil rights were restored. 

296. The Oregon Country. — West of the Rocky Moun- 
tains and north of Mexico lay the country of Oregon. Spain, 
Great Britain, and the United States all claimed a title to this 
region. In the Florida Treaty, Spain relinquished her claim 
to us, making the boundary line between the United States 
and "His Catholic Majesty's possessions in North America" 
the 42d degree of north latitude. In addition to this 
agreement with Spain, the United States had several other 
good claims to Oregon, which seemed sufficient to prove our 
right to the country. In 1792 Captain Grey of Boston had 
discovered the Columbia River, and thirteen years later Lewis 
and Clark had explored its course to the Pacific Ocean. The 
first permanent settlement had been made at Astoria by 
Americans in 1811. Moreover, Oregon was adjacent to the 
western portion of Louisiana. 

For years a treaty between our country and Great Britain 
had existed which did not determine the right of either nation 
to own Oregon, but gave to each the privilege of settling 
there. Thus it happened that the ownership of the country 
depended in a large measure upon the number of actual 
inhabitants that England and the United States had in 
Oregon. 

297. Doctor Marcus Whitman. — Doctor Marcus Whitman, 
a missionary to the Indians in that country, saw that the 



240 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Hudson Bay Company was trying to secure a majority of the 
inhabitants favorable to the British claims, and he determined 
to prevent it from carrying out its plans. With a single 
companion, he crossed the Rocky Mountains in the winter of 
1842-1843, enduring untold hardships, informed the govern- 
ment at Washington of the designs of the British, and the fol- 
lowing summer aided a great company of nearly a thousand 
persons, men, women, and children, to cross the mountains 
and settle in the coimtry of the Columbia River. Thus the 
Americans gained a majority. In 1846 we made a treaty 
with Great Britain, agreeing that latitude 49° should be our 
northwestern boundary line. 



-A..M;. 

The First Telegraph Message. 

298. Morse's Magnetic Telegraph. — Samuel F. B. Morse, 
after years of careful study and experimenting, during the 
course of which he spent his own money and all that he could 
raise, finally invented a successful magnetic telegraph. By 
this invention it became possible to send messages from one 
place to another by means of an electrical current passing 
through a wire. Congress made an appropriation for testing 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) 241 

the invention, and a line was set up between Washington 
and Baltimore. The first message sent over the wire was 
the sentence, "What hath God wrought!" 

It happened that just as the line was put in operation, 
the Democratic convention was holding its session in 
Baltimore, and having nominated James K. Polk for 
President, it proceeded to nominate Silas Wright for Vice- 
President. Mr. Vail, at Baltimore, telegraphed this news to 
Mr. Morse, at Washington. Morse's office was in FirstTele- 
the Capitol, and knowing that Mr. Wright was in graphic 
the Senate chamber, he notified him of his nomi- News- 
nation. Wright at once declined the honor. Morse imme- 
diately telegraphed that fact to Mr. Vail, who informed the 
convention that Mr. Wright declined the nomination. The 
convention refused to believe the message, thinking that it was 
a trick on the part of those opposed to Mr. Wright. Therefore, 
a committee was appointed to inform Mr. Wright of his 
nomination and request his acceptance. The next day the 
committee reported that the telegram was correct and that 
Mr. Wright would not accept the nomination. Thus the in- 
vention had at the outset the best possible bit of advertising. 
The delegates told the story in every state in the Union. 

299. Presidential Election (1844). — In the summer of 
1844 the Whig national convention nominated Henry Clay 
for President, and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey for 
Vice-President. The Democrats nominated James K. Polk 
of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania. Polk 
and Dallas were elected. 

SUMMARY 

President Harrison, having served but one month, died, and 
was succeeded by John Tyler, whose policy was not that of the 
Whig party. 



242 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



A treaty with Great Britain determined the northern boun- 
dary as far as the Rocky Mountains. Oregon came into the 
possession of the United States, and Texas was annexed and 
admitted as a state. Rhode Island was disturbed by the Dorr 
rebellion. The telegraphic system invented by Morse was put 
into operation. 

CHAPTER XXV 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 

300. The Texan Boundary. — The State of Texas, while 
a part of Mexico, had been called "The State of Texas and 
Coahuila " (ku-a-we'-la). Texas proper was east of the Neuces 
River, but she claimed as far west as the Rio Grande 
(re'-o-gran'-da). 

Mexico had not acknowledged the independence of Texas. 
She now held that Texas did not 
include Coahuila, and that her 
boundary was the Neuces River and 
not the Rio Grande. 

301. An American Force Sent to 
the Disputed Territory. — President 
Polk, in the summer of 1S45, sent 
an armed force under the command 
of General Zachary Taylor to take 
possession of the disputed territory. 
In March, 1846, Taylor, who then 
had an army of about four thou- 
sand men, was ordered to advance to the Rio Grande. The 
Mexican general, Arista (a-res'ta), crossed the river and a bat- 
tle ensued. Taylor was victorious and the Mexicans were 
driven back. 

302. War Declared. — President Polk sent a message to 




James K. Polk. 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 243 

Congress, saying: "Mexico has passed the boundary of the 
United States and shed the blood of American citizens upon 
American soil. War exists, and, notwithstanding all our efforts 
to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself." Forthwith 
Congress declared war against Mexico. In September Gen- 
eral Taylor began his march westward. He captured the 
fortified town of Monterey (mon'te-ra')> and then fought the 
battle of Buena Vista (bii'na vis'-ta), where in Buena 
February, 1847, he defeated the Mexican general, Vista. 

Santa Ana (san'ta/ a'na) and a force greatly superior in num- 
bers to his own. 

303. The American Plan. — While General Taylor was 
to advance upon the City of Mexico from the north, General 
Scott, who had landed with twelve thousand men at Vera 
Cruz (va'-ra kroos), was to approach the capital city from the 
east. General Kearny was to capture the old town of Santa 
Fe (san'-ta fa') and the province of New Mexico. At the 
same time a fleet of American vessels, under the command of 
Commodores Sloat and Stockton, which had already been 
sent to Upper California in anticipation of the war, was to 
take possession there. 

In every detail this plan was carried out. In California, 
Los Angeles (los an'-gel-es), Monterey and San Francisco 
were captured ; General Fremont was elected governor by the 
American settlers there. All New Mexico fell into the hands 
of the Americans. General Scott, who was placed in su- 
preme command, marched his army to the City of Americans 
Mexico. Various battles were fought, in which, Every- 
as throughout the war, the Americans were always where Vlc_ 
victorious. In September, after hard fighting, 
Mexico surrendered . The triumphant American army marched 
into the city of the Montezumas, and the war was practically 
at an end. 



244 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




Field of Operations in the Mexican War. 



304. The Treaty of Peace. — Upon the fall of the capital, 
the Mexican government was willing to sue for peace. A 
treaty was negotiated at Guadalupe Hidalgo (ga'-da-loop' 
he-daT-go), in February, 1848, by which Mexico yielded 
Texas, agreeing that the western boundary should be the Rio 
Grande. Furthermore, Mexico ceded to us her two provinces 
of Upper California and New Mexico, with the provision that 
the United States pay to her the sum of fifteen million 
dollars, and satisfy the claims of American citizens against 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 



245 




The Mexican Cessions and the Oregon Country. 



her to the amount of three million two hundred and fifty 
thousand dollars. 

305. The Gadsden Purchase. — Five years after the date 
of this treaty, an additional territory was conveyed by Mexico 
to the United States. This territory has been called the 
Gadsden Purchase, because the treaty was made by Captain 
James Gadsden. It was a tract to the westward of the Rio 
Grande and south of the Gila (he'la) River. It cost us ten 
million dollars. The purchase was made on account of a 
difficulty respecting the boundary, and because it was thought 



24G ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

that the United States might desire at sonic future 1 time to 
build here a railroad to the Pacific. The Southern Pacific 
railroad now runs through the entire length of this district. 

306. Increase of Territory. — The original territory of 
the United States was wholly east of the Mississippi River 
and included about eight hundred and twenty thousand square 
miles. By the Louisiana Purchase the territory was extended 
to embrace in addition more than nine hundred thousand 
square miles, and by the acquisition of Florida nearly sixty 
thousand more. The winning of Oregon gave us about three 
hundred thousand square miles, and the Mexican purchase, 
including Texas, increased our area by more than nine hun- 
dred thousand. We had, therefore, at the time we are con- 
sidering, an extent of territory more than three times that of 
the original. We had advanced from the eastern side of the 
"Father of Waters" to the very shores of the Pacific. 

307. The Wilmot Proviso. — When the President asked 
Congress for money to buy territory of Mexico, David Wil- 
mot of Pennsylvania offered in the House of Representatives 
a "proviso" that slavery should forever be prohibited in any 
territory purchased from Mexico. Although this did not pass 
Congress, it strongly affected the general sentiment of the 
people of the North. The opinion was rapidly growing in all 
the free states that slavery should not be further extended. 
The principle seemed to be that while, under the Constitu- 
tion, the national government could not interfere with the 
domestic institutions of the several states, yet Congress had 
the constitutional power to "make all needful rules and 
regulations respecting the territories." The proposal of the 
Wilmot proviso angered the people of the slave states, and, 
on the other hand, failure to pass the proviso offended the 
opponents of slavery. 

308. The Cost of the War and its Results. — The Mexican 




Longitudi ■'•■ 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (184.5-1849) 247 

War cost the United States very nearly one hundred million 
dollars and a great loss of life. The number killed in our 
army was not relatively large, but very many died later from 
disease occasioned by the war. 

Our armies had been successful throughout, but our coun- 
try had little cause to be proud. In comparison with us, 
Mexico was a small, weak nation. At the close of the war 
she was very unwilling to give up any of her territory. But 
she had been conquered. Her adversary had fought the war 
for territory and insisted upon securing it. Mexico was 
obliged to yield. It is to the credit of the United States, 
however, that we paid full price for the land acquired. 

The opposition to the war, especially in the North, had 
been powerful, but not sufficiently so to prevent opposition 
it. Many of our best statesmen then and since to the 
were outspoken in condemning it. General Grant 
has called it "one of the most unjust wars ever waged by a 
stronger against a weaker nation." 

309. Discovery of Gold in California. — Some years before 
the Mexican War a native of Switzerland, John A. Sutter, 
made his way from San Francisco into the interior of Cali- 
fornia and built a house for himself in the Sacramento 
Valley. In January, 1848, while he was building a sawmill 
about forty miles east of the present city of Sacramento, one 
of his workmen, James A. Marshall, discovered gold that had 
been washed down in the mill race. Soon large numbers 
from the neighborhood flocked to the place to dig gold. 
Later in the year news of the discovery of gold spread over 
the country and multitudes from far away went to Cali- 
fornia. These gold-diggers were mainly from the Northern 
states, and went to California either by way of Cape Horn 
or across the Isthmus of Panama. By the autumn of 1849 
there were one hundred thousand inhabitants in the territory. 



248 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

310. California State Constitution Adopted. — At Mon- 
terey, in October, 1849, a convention assembled and framed 
a constitution. This constitution was adopted by the people 
in November, and California then made application to Con- 
gress to be admitted into the Union as a *state. This was 
before Congress had had time to form a territorial govern- 
ment. California was made a state in 1850. 

311. Other New States. — In 1845 Texas and Florida 
were admitted to the Union, and Iowa the next year. 

312. A New Political Party. — This acquisition of Cali- 
fornia, a great part of which was in the latitude of the Southern 
or slave states, and the failure of the Wilmot proviso, so in- 
censed the people of the Northern or free states that a new 
party was formed, called the Free Soil party. They de- 
clared for "Free Soil for a Free People." It was proposed by 
this party not to interfere with slavery where it already ex- 
isted, but to oppose its extension into any new territory. 

313. Presidential Election (1848). — The Democrats nomi- 
nated Lewis Cass of Michigan and William 0. Butler of Ken- 
tucky. The Whigs chose as candidates Zachary Taylor of 
Louisiana and Millard Fillmore of New York. The new Free 
Soil party nominated Martin Van Buren of New York, and 
Charles Francis Adams of Massachusetts. Taylor and Fill- 
more were elected by a majority of both the free and the 
slave states. 

SUMMARY 

A dispute over the Texan boundary brought on a war with 
Mexico, which resulted in a complete victory for the United 
States. By the treaty of peace we came into possession of 
New Mexico and California. This territory was later increased 
by the Gadsden Purchase. 

Gold was discovered in California in the winter of 1S48. The 
population there increased so rapidly that within two years 
California was admitted as a state. 



TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853) 249 

CHAPTER XXVI 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853) 

314. Compromise of 1850. — California had asked to be 
admitted without an "enabling act," and had presented to 
Congress a free state constitution. Thus she was the cause 
of a controversy in Congress. The free states favored her ad- 
mission and the slave states opposed it. The result was the 
Compromise Measures of 1850. These were as follows: 



/L. «. C; > * /^^xr^T~r^: — 










The Result of the Compromise of 1850. 

1. California to be admitted as a free state. 

2. The slave trade to be prohibited in the District of 
Columbia, though slavery still continued there. 

3. The rest of the Mexican cession to be organized into 
two territories, Utah and New Mexico, with or without 
slavery, as each should decide. 

4. Texas to be paid ten million dollars for portions of her 
public lands. (These lands are now included in New Mexico, 
Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma.) 



250 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

5. A strict Fugitive Slave Law to be enacted. 

The Fugitive Slave Law which was passed required the 
citizens of the free states to aid United States officers in 
capturing runaway slaves. The law was opposed by many 
Northern people, and most of the free states passed what 
were called Personal Liberty bills, which interfered with its 
execution. The passage of these bills greatly angered the 
people of the South. Thus the slavery controversy in- 
creased; the breach was widened, and the alienation of the 
two sections of the country intensified. 

315. Death of President Taylor. — President Taylor, 
having served as President only a little over a year, died on 
the 9th of July, 1850. He was succeeded by the Vice-Presi- 
dent, Millard Fillmore. Thus a second time the Whig party 
lost its President by death, and this time, as before, the Vice- 
President's policy was fatal to the success of the party. 

During this administration the older political leaders 
passed away. New leaders rose up who came to be* classed 
as either pro-slavery or anti-slavery men. On the one hand 
were Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, Alexander H. Stephens of 
Georgia, and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois; and on the other 
were William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of 
Ohio, and Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. Douglas was 
not, strictly speaking, a pro-slavery leader, though he was so 
considered by many anti-slavery men. 

316. Speech of Webster. — Daniel Webster delivered in 
the Senate, on the 7th of March, 1850, a memorable speech 
in which he opposed the Wilmot Proviso and defended the 
Fugitive Slave Law. This speech, his last great effort, was 
variously interpreted. Some thought that he apologized for 
slavery and had deserted his Northern friends and his prin- 
ciples; others believed that he made a bid for the Southern 
favor to help him to the presidency. And still others thought 



TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853) 251 




Zachary Taylor. 



that he aimed only to harmonize the views of the North 
and the South. Viewed in the broader light of this later 
day, it seems probable that he 
was greatly influenced by his 
fear of secession. But, what- 
ever his motives, the speech 
seriously injured his influence. 
It offended the great mass of 
the Northern people, and Web- 
ster never regained his former 
popularity. He was not nomi- 
nated for the presidency in 
1852. He died in October of 
that same year, a disappointed 
man. 

317. Presidential Election (1852). — -The Democrats 
nominated Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, and William 
R, King of Alabama. The 
Whigs named General Win field 
Scott of Virginia, and William 
A. Graham of North Carolina. 
The Free Soilers nominated 
John P. Hale of New Hamp- 
shire, and George W. Julian 
of Indiana. The Whig party 
carried only four states for 
their candidates. Pierce and 
King received the electoral 
votes of the other twenty-seven 




Millard Fillmore. 



states and were elected, 
rant of the Whig party. 



This election was the death war- 



252 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



SUMMARY 

The request of California to be admitted as a free state was 
the cause of a bitter controversy in Congress. The compromise 
measures of 1850 served only to widen the breach between the 
North and the South. 

President Taylor died in office and most of the old party 
leaders passed away. New leaders came to the front and these 
were either pro-slavery or anti-slavery men. 



CHAPTER XXVII 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 11853-1857) 

318. The World's Fair. — In 1851, a "World's Fair," to 
illustrate the world's progress in the arts and sciences, was 

held in London, at the "Crystal 
Palace," a large building covered 
with glass. This attracted so much 
attention that it was followed by 
another World's Fair, held in 
another Crystal Palace, at New 
York in the summer of 1853. Va- 
rious nations were invited to exhibit 
with America. The fair had ex- 
cellent results. Thereby America 
saw what the nations of Europe 
were doing, and those countries saw 
how rapidly America was improving, and wherein she excelled. 

319. Commodore Perry and Japan. — The ports of China 
and Japan had been closed to foreign countries for ages. 
England, by a war begun in 1840, had forced China to open 
her ports. A little later the United States made a treaty 




Franklin Pierce, 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857) 



253 



with China for free commerce. Then, in 1853, Commodore 
Matthew C. Perry was sent by our government to Japan 
to endeavor to make a treaty for open trade between our 
people and that country. The next year he succeeded in 
securing from the Japanese government a treaty by which 
certain ports were rendered free of access to our commerce. 
Friendly diplomacy had secured for us what other nations 
had been unable to accomplish. 
320. Kansas-Nebraska Act. — Stephen A. Douglas, Dem- 




ItOTE: 

m In all Territories "Question 
2&~-J>f Slavery" left toaettlers. 

~ns°-- — \ 



The Result of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 



ocratic senator from Illinois, introduced in the Senate a bill 
(1854) for the organization of the two territories of Kansas 
and Nebraska. It was proposed in the bill that the people 
of these territories be given the right to decide whether, as 
territories, they should have slavery or not. The first 
settlers in a new territory were called squatters. Hence 
this new doctrine received the name of "Squatter Sover- 
eignty." The bill virtually repealed the provision in the 
Missouri Compromise that there should be no more slave ter- 



254 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

ritory north of 36° 30'. It was called the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill, and it gave rise to a vigorous and bitter controversy 
in Congress and throughout the country. However, it 
finally passed both houses of Congress and became a law. 
Douglas hoped that this would settle the slavery question. 
But results proved otherwise. 

321. The Border War. — The contest was only removed 
from Congress elsewhere. Kansas now became the battle- 
ground. The champions of freedom and of slavery each 
strove to secure the state. Missouri sent many emigrants 
over the border; these built the town of Atchison and this 
place became the center of pro-slavery operations. On the 
other hand, a society in New England, formed for the purpose, 
sent anti-slavery men into the new territory. They built 
the town of Lawrence, which became the headquarters of 
the anti-slavery movements. As it was clearly apparent 
that whichever side should have a majority of the votes 
would win when a government should be established, each 
of the two parties was striving to build up a population of 
its own sort in Kansas. 

322. Election Contested. — An election was called and 
many of the inhabitants of Missouri went over the border 
to vote and then returned to their homes. Thus a pro- 
slavery legislature was elected. The Free State party, 
however, held a convention at Topeka, framed a consti- 
tution, and applied to Congress for admission as a free 
state. The House of Representatives voted in favor of 
admission, and the Senate voted against it. 

323. Civil War in Kansas. What might be called a 
civil war now ensued. Houses were pillaged and burned, 
assassinations were frequent. These crimes were not con- 
fined to one party, though the opinion became current 
that the pro-slavery men were the more violent and 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857) 255 

reckless. The administration at Washington favored the 
pro-slavery side, and one governor after another was ap- 
pointed by the President and sent to Kansas with the hope 
of quieting the belligerents, but no one of them was able 
to preserve the peace. This unfortunate state of affairs 
continued for several years, and it was not till 1857 that 
the Free State party gained a clear majority in the terri- 
torial legislature and hence slavery was excluded. The terri- 
torial government continued until 1861, so that not till the 
representatives and senators from the seceded states had 
withdrawn from Congress did Kansas come in as a state of 
the Union. 

324. The Republican Party. — One important result of 
the Kansas-Nebraska Act could not have been foreseen by 
its friends. It was nothing less than the formation of a 
new and strong political party, destined to have a national 
majority before many years should pass by. Early in 1856 
the Anti-Nebraska party, hitherto called the Free Soil party, 
adopted the name "Republican." This party soon received 
large accessions, especially from the old Whig party. 

325. Charles Sumner Attacked. — During this Kansas 
turmoil, Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts, 
a strong, independent, out-spoken anti-slavery man, made 
vigorous speeches against slavery and the pro-slavery party. 
In one of his speeches he made severe mention of Senator 
Butler of South Carolina, who was absent at the time. 
Preston S. Brooks, a member of the House from South 
Carolina and a nephew of Senator Butler, entered the senate- 
chamber after adjournment, and approaching Senator 
Sumner from behind brutally attacked him. 1 He beat the 

1 The Constitution prescribes that the members of either house shall 
be " privileged from arrest," and that " for any speech or debate in 
either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place." 




256 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Massachusetts senator on the head with a thick cane until 
Sumner lay on the floor unconscious. Sunnier was so seri- 
ously injured that for years his seat remained vacant in the 

senate-chamber, "a silent pro- 
test against unpunished vio- 
lence." Meantime his term of 
office expired, but he was unani- 
mously reelected by the legis- 
lature of Massachusetts. A 
majority of the House of Rep- 
resentatives voted to expel 
Brooks, but since the vote was 
not a two-thirds vote he was 

Charles Sumner. , n i tt • i- j. 1 

not expelled. He immediately 
resigned his seat, but was unanimously reelected by his 
district. 

326. Presidential Election (1856). — The Democratic party 
nominate* I James Buchanan, an experienced statesman from 
Pennsylvania, and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The 
newly formed Republican party nominated John C. Fremont 
of California, and William L. Dayton of New Jersey. The 
Democratic candidates, Buchanan and Breckinridge, were 
elected. 

SUMMARY 

The first World's Fair was held early in Pierce's adminis- 
tration. Commodore Perry, representing the United States, 
made with China and Japan treaties allowing Americans to 
trade with those countries. 

Stephen A. Douglas introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill 
in the Senate and it became a law. Douglas hoped that this 
would settle the dispute 011 the slavery question. Instead it 
brought about a civil war in Kansas, and led to the formation 
of the Republican party. 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 



257 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-186 1) 

327. The Dred Scott Decision. — Questions relating to 
slavery now fully absorbed the public mind. In spite of 
Mr. Douglas's good intention in putting forward his bill, 
the next few years showed that he had made a great 
mistake. That which perhaps did more than anything else 
to antagonize the North was the decision/of the Supreme 
Court on the Dred Scott case. Dred 
Scott was a slave in Missouri, and 
his master had taken him to Illi- 
nois, a free state. Hence he claimed 
his freedom. The case came before 
the St. Louis court, by which the 
slave was given his freedom, but it 
was later appealed to the Supreme 
Court of Missouri, by which the St. 
Louis verdict was set aside and 
Scott was sent back to slavery. 
Then the case was carried to 
the United States Circuit Court. 
Finally it went to the Supreme Court. The decision of 
this Court, pronounced by Chief-Justice Taney (taw'-ney), 
was that Dred Scott must remain a slave. Further- 
more Taney pronounced the Missouri Compromise uncon- 
stitutional, null, and void, and denied the right of Congress 
or of a territorial legislature to make any restrictions con- 
cerning slavery in any territory. He affirmed that slaves had 
no right to sue in the courts, as they were not citizens of the 
United States, and seemed to approve the statement that the 
negro "had no rights that a white man was bound to respect." 




James Buchanan. 



258 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The decision in the case, while it pleased the South, repulsed 
Its Effect the North. The great body of the people in the 
on the non-slave-holding states condemned it as unjust 

Sections. an j unc0 nstitutional. The result was that it in- 
flamed the people of the two sections and greatly increased 
the alienation of sentiment which existed between them. 

328. The Lincoln and Douglas Debates. — Stephen A. 
Douglas and Abraham Lincoln were Illinois candidates for 
a seat in the United States Senate. During the campaign 
they "stumped the state" together, and made a series of 
speeches from the same platforms. The debates between them 
became famous. The questions which they discussed were 
those then agitating the public mind all over the country. 
The two champions themselves were intellectual giants. 
Perhaps no other political debate was ever so powerful or 
so far-reaching in results. Douglas had the difficult task 
of trying to reconcile the Dred Scott decision with his own 
doctrine of " Squatter Sovereignty." Lincoln took the 
ground of the moderate anti-slavery men and opposed, on 
the one hand the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and on the other 
the Dred Scott decision. Douglas was a great orator, but 
Lincoln proved quite his equal in logical reasoning and in 
skillful tactics. Douglas knew him well and before the 
debates began he is reported to have said: "I shall have my 
hands full. He is the strong man of his party, full of wit, 
facts, dates, and the best stump speaker in the West ; he 
is as honest as he is shrewd." 

Lincoln one day said to a friend: "I shall ask Douglas 
a question to-night and I don't care a 'Continental' which 
way he answers it. If he answers it one way, it will lose 
him the senatorship; if he answers it the other way, it will 
lose him the presidency." This question related to slavery 
in the territories. If a majority in any territory was opposed 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1361) 259 

to -slavery and the minority was in favor, what would be 
the outcome? Judge Douglas answered that the majority 
must rule. This was not according to the decision in the 
Dred Scott case in which the Supreme Court held that by 
constitutional right slaves could be taken to any of the ter- 
ritories of the Union. Douglas's answer satisfied the people 
of Illinois and they elected him senator, but it "lost him 
the presidency," for it displeased the South. 

329. The John Brown Raid. — The Kansas difficulties, 
the Dred Scott decision, and the Lincoln-Douglas debates 
had all served to keep the political fires at white heat. As 
though all this were not enough, however, a foolhardy at- 
tempt for immediate emancipation of the slaves by insurrec- 
tion made the excitement still more intense. John Brown, 
a bold and fearless man, who had been one of the foremost 
Free State leaders in Kansas, conceived the idea of freeing 
some slaves, arming them, and starting an insurrection, 
probably with the hope of frightening the South into proclaim- 
ing emancipation. On the night of the 16th of October, 
1859, Brown, his son, and a few other persons captured, 
without bloodshed, the United States arsenal at Harper's 
Ferry, Virginia, armed a few negroes, and patrolled the vil- 
lage. Brown was easily overpowered, several of his men 
were killed, and the remainder captured by the military. 
Brown himself was tried by a Virginia court, and sentenced 
to be hanged. He was executed December 2, 1859. 

Very few in the North sympathized with Brown's useless 
and foolhardy raid. The people of the South, how- 
ever, were highly incensed at this attempted insur- supported 
rection and failed to understand that only a few by Most 
Northerners desired the immediate abolition of Northern_ 

crs. 

slavery, and that fewer still approved of any insur- 
rection for the purpose. All anti-slavery men were classed by 



260 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Southerners as abolitionists, and henceforth Southern Demo- 
crats had only scorn and contempt for the "Black Repub- 
licans," as they called the new Northern party. 

330. The Slavery Question. — The fathers of the republic, 
in the South as well as in the North, had been generally 
opposed to slavery and had expected that in time it would 
be abolished. But as the years passed by and slave labor 
became more and more profitable, the people of the South 




Copyright, 1892, by J. HoTgan, Jr. 

Negro Laborers in the Cotton Field. 

arrived at the conclusion that slavery was not only desirable, 
but justifiable, claiming that it was sanctioned by the Bible. 
In the North, where most of the people disapproved of keep- 
ing men and women in bondage, the question was widely 
discussed. Anti-slavery societies had been formed which ad- 
vocated the abolition of slavery, and some went so far as 
to declare that this should be immediate. 1 The majority of 

'In f831 William Lloyd Garrison, an earnest opponent of slavery, 
began in Boston the publication of a vigorous anti-slavery paper, failed 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 261 

the people, however, did not sympathize with these extreme 
ideas, not because they thought them wrong but because 
they thought them unwise. Moreover, all this discussion, 
while it widened the breach between the North and the South, 
served rather to make the condition of the slave harder. 

Petitions concerning slavery were continually sent to 
Congress, where they were usually read by John Quincy 
Adams. 1 The House of Representatives passed The Gag 
a resolve known as the Gag Rule, which forbade Rule - 
any petition on the subject of slavery to be presented. Mr. 
Adams, in spite of threats, ridicule, and abuse, persisted in 
offering the petitions, and finally the rule was repealed. 

331. Condition of the Country Before the Civil War. — 
Before taking up the election of a new President in 1860, 
it will be well to review the condition of the country and to 
observe what great advances had been made in different 
directions since the beginning of the nineteenth century. 

332. Postage. — Rates of postage were fixed by Congress 
in 1792. At various times after that date the rates were 
reduced, until in 1843 the postage on a single sheet of paper 
for a distance under thirty miles was six cents; from thirty 
to eighty miles, ten cents; from eighty to one hundred and 
fifty miles, twelve and a half cents; and the highest rate was 
twenty-five cents for four hundred miles or more. In 1845 
the postage for a letter not exceeding half an ounce was 

The Liberator. He was an extreme agitator, and denounced the United 
States Constitution as a "covenant with death and an agreement with 
hell." He published this paper till slavery was abolished and then it was 
discontinued. The abolition party in the North was always small, but it 
greatly inflamed the people of the South. 

1 After John Quincy Adams had served his term as President of the 
United States, he was elected a representative to Congress from Massa- 
chusetts. He was re-elected by his district again and again until his 
death in 1848. During this period he probably did his best service for 
his country. He was known as " the old man eloquent." 



262 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

made five cents for three hundred miles or less, and ten cents 
for a distance more than three hundred miles. In 1851 the 
rates were again reduced. 1 Postage stamps have been in 
use since 1847. Before that time postmasters stamped on a 
letter the word "paid." 

333. Temperance. — Societies to diminish the evils of 
drunkenness began about the year 1S25. Until that time 
almost everybody drank intoxicating liquors and drunken- 
ness w r as everywhere common. The American Society for 
the Promotion of Temperance was formed in 1826, and in 
1840 the W ashingtonian Temperance Society was organized. 
Other temperance and total abstinence societies followed, 
and a .great awakening in regard to the evils of intemper- 
ance resulted. Many inebriates were reformed, and multi- 
tudes were kept from the habit which leads to drunken- 
ness. 2 

334. India Rubber. — Rubber shoes were first seen in 
the United States in 1820, and two years later a Boston sea- 
captain brought into port five hundred pairs of rubber shoes, 
made by the natives of Brazil. They were quickly sold, 
but the rubber was soft and easily "cut by ice and stones. 
Shortly afterwards, experiments were made in America to 
manufacture other kinds of rubber goods. A man named 
Chaffee thought that he had succeeded in making rubber 

1 In 1883 letter postage was changed from three cents to two cents 
for any distance in the United States, and a little later the weight of 
a letter for a single postage was fixed at one ounce. Postal cards were 
first used in Austria and were adopted in our country in 1873. Two 
years later the International Universal Postal Union began its work at 
Berne, Switzerland. Its operations have been continued and enlarged 
until all civilized nations have joined it, and there is now a uniform 
postage to nearly all parts of the world. 

2 To-day laws are in force in all the states, which require all the pub- 
lic schools to teach the nature of alcohol and its effects upon the human 
system. 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 263 

cloth. But the heat of summer melted it and the cold of 
winter hardened it, so that it was almost useless. 

For ten years Charles Goodyear worked to discover some 
substance that would harden gum rubber so that it would 
not be affected by either heat or cold. He was called the 
"India-rubber Maniac," and people described him The <« In _ 
as "a man with an India-rubber coat on, India-rub- dia-rubber 
ber shoes, an India-rubber cap, and in his pocket Mania c" 
an India-rubber purse, and not a cent in it." At times he 
even felt obliged to sell his children's school books to buy 
material for his work, but he was at last successful and, in 
1844, received his patent for vulcanized rubber. 

335. The Se wing-Machine. — In 1846, Elias Howe suc- 
ceeded in inventing the first practical sewing-machine. At 
first people were greatly opposed to it, as they were to all 
labor-saving machines, because it was thought these inven- 
tions would take away from the working man his means of 
livelihood. After a time, when people realized the value of 
sewing machines, Howe made a fortune. The machine was 
soon adapted to the sewing of all kinds of materials, and the 
cost of clothing was lessened. No invention has proved a 
greater blessing or made more of an advance in American 
life than this. 

336. The Reaper. — Another invention of great impor- 
tance was produced about this same time. Hitherto all hay 
and grain had been cut by the hand-scythe or sickle. This 
was a slow process and suitable only for small farms. As 
early as 1831 Cyrus McCormick had produced a successful 
reaper, but for ten years farmers would not buy it, and by 
1850 only three thousand had been sold. The next year Mr. 
McCormick exhibited his machine at the World's Fair in 
London. The English papers made all manner of fun of it. 
Nevertheless the reaper easily proved itself superior to all 



264 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




( h in s \\ . McCormick. 



similar machines. The watching farmers were obliged to 
give it three hearty cheers, and one broke his sickle across 

his knee, saying that he would 
no longer need it. Since then 
the reaper has been improved 
again and again, and other farm- 
ing machines equally marvelous 
have been invented. But for 
them we should not have our 
great grain fields of the West. 

337. Ether. — One of the most 
wonderful discoveries of this 
period was the use of ether as an 
anaesthetic. It was found that 
the inhalation of ether would put 
a sufferer to sleep and render him unconscious of pain. It 
was first successfully used in a surgical operation in the 
Massachusetts General Hospital in 1S46. 

338. Petroleum. — The first profitable oil well in this 
country was sunk by Colonel Drake in western Pennsylvania 
in 1S59. It was soon discovered that oil existed in large 
quantities under the surface of the ground in various parts 
of the country. In different forms it was put to a variety of 
uses, and in its refined state as kerosene it took the place 
of whale oil and candles for common lighting purposes. 

339. Transportation. — Railroads had been rapidly built 
since 1830. In that year there were but twenty-three miles 
of rails in the entire country, and by 1860 over thirty thou- 
sand had been constructed. The South was put into connec- 
tion with the North, and the West with the East, though no 
road joining the Atlantic and Pacific coasts yet existed. 
Moreover, Europe and America were brought more closely 
together than ever before. New lines of steamboats soon 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 265 

made the trip from New York to Liverpool in less than twelve 
days. 

340. The Results of Inventions. — All these changes had 
made a great difference in American life. The labor of the 
housekeeper and the workman had been lightened. The 
cost of living had decreased and wages had advanced. The 
merchant was brought into closer intercourse with his cus- 
tomer, and the buyer was able to get greater value for his 
money and to obtain the luxuries as well as the necessities 
of life. The people had more money and there were more 
things for them to buy. They also had more time for 
recreation and for reading the many books and papers that 
the improved printing presses had made possible. 

341. Men of Letters. — American literature had become 
an established fact. Our authors were being read and praised 
on both sides of the Atlantic. Names such as Washington 
Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, William Cullen Bryant, 
George Bancroft, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry W. Long- 
fellow, and many others were already famous. 

342. Immigration. — The migration of foreign-born people 
to this country and their permanent settlement here have 
been unprecedented. First, as we have seen, as early as 
the seventeenth century people came, especially from Eng- 
land, and established themselves along the Atlantic slope. 
This first migration of a sturdy, vigorous race resulted in 
the establishment of the English colonies, which afterwards 
became the thirteen states of the American republic. 

Near the close of the eighteenth and the opening of the 
nineteenth centuries there was a second migration. This 
was across the Allegheny Mountains to the Mississippi Valley. 
A third migration had already begun in the period we are 
now considering, although it has taken place largely within 
the last fifty years. This third migration was over the Rocky 



266 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Mountains to the Pacific coast. These second and third 
migrations, it should be noted, were made by the descendents 
of the first. All three, therefore, were of the same race. 

343. Migration from Foreign Countries. — About a cen- 
tury ago there began a migration to our shores different 
from these other three. This immigration was from all 




Copyright, 1900, by Detroit Photographic Company. 

A Foreign Quarter in New York City. 

parts of Europe. The immigrants came to better their 
condition, which was, for the most part, poor. They came 
in small numbers till about the year 1840. Since then 
the number of our foreign-born citizens has continued to 
multiply rapidly. During the sixty years before the begin- 
ning of the present century our population was increased 
by nearly twenty million persons of foreign birth. In the 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 267 

early days of foreign immigration, the great part of this 
increase was from Ireland and Germany. More recently 
the larger part of it has been from Italy, Russia, Poland, 
and Austria-Hungary. In New England many Canadians 
have settled. 

These newcomers have spread themselves well over our 
country, except the Southern states. They are in large 
numbers in the great cities like New York, Chicago, Boston, 
Cincinnati, San Francisco, St. Louis, and in the immense 
agricultural sections of the great Northwest. 

344. Presidential Election (i860). — The Democratic party 
could not agree upon any one candidate and it split into 
two wings. The Southern or pro-slavery division nominated 
John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, and Joseph Lane of 
Oregon. The Northern delegates named Stephen A. Douglas 
of Illinois, and Hershel V. Johnson of Georgia. The Repub- 
licans chose for their candidates Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, 
and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. The American or Know 
Nothing party, now called the Constitutional Union party, 
nominated John Bell of Tennessee, and Edward Everett 
of Massachusetts. Lincoln and Hamlin were elected. 

SUMMARY 

The Dred Scott decision, the Lincoln-Douglas debates, and 
John Brown's raid kept the slavery question prominently be- 
fore the country, and inflamed more and more the South and 
the North against each other. All Northerners were classed 
by the South as abolitionists, and the feeling of the Southerners 
against them was very bitter. 

The country had prospered in the twenty-five years before 
1860, and the condition of the people had greatly improved. 
The temperance societies had lessened misery, inventions and 
discoveries had lightened labor, postage had been reduced, 
railroads had been built in all sections of the country except 
the far West, and books and papers had multiplied. 



268 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



CHAPTER XXIX 



Slavery. 



lincoln's first administration (1861-1865) 
The Civil War (1861-1863) 

345. Secession. — The alienation of the South and the 
North was becoming more and more intense. Of this, the 
principal cause, as we have already seen, was 
the slavery question. As the anti-slavery party 
in the North constantly grew larger, the pro-slavery senti- 
ment in the South became more and more aggressive. The 
admission of California as a free state in 1850 gave the 

balance of power in the United 
States Senate to the Free State 
party. From that time the states- 
men in the South began their 
preparations for a separation from 
the Union. They did not choose 
to plan for "revolution," but they 
thought to avail themselves of 
what they considered 
their "right to secede." 
Although nothing in the 
Constitution itself favored this 
supposed right, yet in the early 
days of the republic many in different parts of the country 
held to the belief that a state had the right to withdraw 
from the Union. As time went on, this belief diminished in 
the North and increased in the South. The great statesman 
of South Carolina, John C. Calhoun, maintained it firmly, 
and through his teaching and that of other eminent South- 
erners the doctrine came to be generally accepted in the 




State 
Rights. 



Jefferson Davis 




UNITED STATES 

DURING THE CIVIL WAR 



|] Union States 



Territory Controlled 
by Federal Government 



| Bonier States ^} Confederate States 

?5 50 100 2 00 300 400 500 

SC4LE OF STATUTt MILES 



The Mafthews-Northrup Works, Buflaio .N.V. 1 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 269 

slave-holding states. Meanwhile the North had become 
unanimous in the belief that the Union was supreme. 

During the campaign of 1856, the sentiment was quite 
current among the Southern states that if Fremont, the Re- 
publican, was elected they would secede and set up a new 
government. When in 1860 Lincoln was elected, they felt 
that the time for action had come. In the movement for 
separation from the Union, South Carolina took the lead. 
Immediately on receiving the news of Lincoln's election, 
the legislature called a state convention, which met on the 
20th of December, 1860, and passed an ordinance of seces- 
sion. Before Lincoln was inaugurated, Mississippi, Florida, 
Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had followed South 
Carolina's lead and withdrawn from the Union. 

346. "The Confederate States." — In February, 1861, a 
convention of delegates from the seceded states assembled 
at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a new Union, which 
was named "The Confederate States of America." Jefferson 
Davis of Mississippi was chosen President, and Alexander 
H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President of the Confederacy. 
Thus it happened that before Lincoln became President a 
new government had been established by these seven seceded 
states. Within a few months four more states, Arkansas, 
North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee, passed votes of se- 
cession and joined the Confederacy. 

347. President Buchanan Inactive. -- The President, 
James Buchanan, was placed in a position which needed 
boldness and decision. He was, however, surrounded by 
Southern advisers. Though he himself did not believe in 
the "right of secession," he was persuaded that the national 
government had no right under the Constitution to coerce a 
state. Therefore he remained inactive in the face of dis- 
aster. Southern members of Congress resigned, and Southern 



270 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

officers in the army gave up their commissions. War mate- 
rial and United States forts and arsenals were seized by the 
South and turned over to the new state authorities or to the 
Confederacy. All these decisive measures on the part of 
Th the South, and the passive state of the President, 

Govern- paralyzed the government at Washington. Mean- 
ment while the new government at Montgomery rapidly 

Para yzed. p re p arec j f or war When Lincoln was inaugurated, 
the United States held only three forts south of Virginia. 
These were Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, Fort Pickens 
at Pensacola, and Key West in Florida. 

348. Population of the Two Sections. — The population 
of the United States, in 1860, was nearly thirty-one and a half 
millions. Of this number far less than one third was in 
the seceded states. Indeed, of the free white population, 
the South had scarcely one sixth of the number. Thus the 
people of the North numbered full twenty-two millions, while 
the entire white population of the Confederacy was a little 
less than five and a half millions. 

349. Comparative Advantages. — While the North had a 
larger population, the South had more generals and experi- 
enced soldiers, and could send a larger proportion of her 
men into the field. The Confederacy had a large stock of 
guns and ammunition, but the Union had greater facilities 
for making a new supply. In the matter of railroads and 
telegraphs, the Federals excelled, but the Confederates were 
to have the advantage of fighting on their own ground. 
Union the The P e °pl e °f the South doubtless thought that 
Purpose the North would not fight, or at most that the 
of the contest would be short. Hut the sentiment that 

the country must not be divided gained rapidly 
in the North. The Union, it was determined, must be pre- 
served at all hazards. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 271 

350. Lincoln Inaugurated. — On the 4th of March, 1861, 
Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President of an already 
divided country. In his inaugural address he stated clearly 
that it was his duty to preserve the union of the states. He 
said that the national laws must be obeyed in all sections of 




Abraham Lincoln. 



the country, that the public revenues must be collected in 
the ports of the seceded states as elsewhere, and that the 
forts and arsenals belonging to the Federal government which 
had been captured must be recovered. 



272 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

351. Fort Sumter. — In the harbor of Charleston were 
several United States forts. In one of them, Fort Moultrie, 
Major Anderson, of the United States army, had under his 
command about a hundred men. In December he trans- 
ferred his command to Fort Sumter, a stronger fortification. 
General Beauregard (bo're-gard'), of the Confederate army, 
gathered a force of five thousand or more and prepared to 
attack Major Anderson. He demanded a surrender of the 
fort. This was refused. Major Anderson said that he would 
very soon be starved out if not relieved. General Beauregard 
asked him to state at what time he would evacuate the fort 
if unmolested. It was then April 11. Major Anderson re- 
plied that he and his command would leave the fort on the 
15th, unless "prior to that time I should receive controlling 
instructions from my government, or additional supplies." 
General Beauregard had been notified that supplies would 
be sent to Major Anderson and he was unwilling to wait. 
Accordingly at twenty minutes past three, on the morning 
of April 12, written notice was served on Major Anderson 
that the Confederate batteries would open fire in one hour. 
At about half past four the bombardment of the fort was be- 
gun. The contest continued till the afternoon of the 13th, 
when the flag was lowered. Anderson and his men marched 
out with the honors of war, carrying with them their colors. 
Their provisions were exhausted, the woodwork had been 
set on fire, and the fort itself was ruined. In this engage- 
ment no life was lost on either side. 

352. The Whole Country Aroused. — The fort was aban- 
doned on Sunday the 14th, and on Monday morning the news- 
papers throughout the entire country announced the fact 
that the flag of the United States had been fired upon and 
that Sumter had surrendered. Civil war had begun. In- 
stantly the whole North was in a blaze of excitement. The 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 273 

people of every loyal state were now united in the sentiment 
that the flag must be defended. Democrats and Republi- 
cans, radicals and conservatives, the rich and the poor, 
capitalists and laboring men, everywhere rallied to the 
support of the administration, and demanded that the gov- 
ernment should defend itself. In the South also public 
sentiment was equally united. The South was filled with 
rejoicing. The North, on the contrary, was heavy hearted, 
while it remained firm in its determination to maintain the 
Union. 

353. President Lincoln's Call for Troops. — On Monday, 
April 15, the President issued his proclamation calling 
upon the states for seventy-five thousand volunteers to 
serve for three months. The whole North responded with 
remarkable promptness. Within a few days thousands were 
on their way to Washington. A regiment from Massachusetts, 
marching through Baltimore, was attacked by a mob of 
Southern sympathizers, who used paving-stones Baltimore 
and firearms. The soldiers returned the fire. Mob- 
Several were killed on each side. The first blood in a terrible 
civil war was shed. The effect of this also was to unite 
the public sentiment on both sides. 

354. Both North and South prepare for War. — The Con- 
federate government at once issued a call for troops, and 
armies were rapidly organized by both the Federal and the 
Confederate governments. In May the new government of 
the South was moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Rich- 
mond, Virginia. The United States Congress assembled on 
the 4th of July and promptly passed the necessary acts for 
raising an army of five hundred thousand men and for pro- 
viding a competent navy. Congress declared that the war 
was not to be carried on for conquest, nor to interfere with 
the established institutions of the Southern states. It was 



274 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



to be prosecuted only to sustain the integrity of the govern- 
ment. The rights of every state must be maintained, but 
all the resources of the government must be used to sup- 
port the Constitution and preserve the Union. 

355. The Blockade. — The President, in his capacity of 
commander-in-chief of the armies and navy of the United 
States, now undertook to blockade all the ports of the states 
which had seceded. This was a gigantic undertaking. Ves- 
sels were bought, others were built, and in an incredibly short 

time the blockade was 
effected along the 
coast of nearly three 
thousand miles. Al- 
though vessels would 
occasionally run the 
blockade, it was not 
broken during the 
four long years of 
the war. 

356. "Onto Rich- 
mond." — At the be- 
ginning of the conflict 
both sides supposed the war would be short. Each section 
failed to understand the other. The South despised the 
people of the North, considering them as money-getters 
only, who would not fight, while the North accused the South- 
ern people of bluster and arrogance. The North did not com- 
prehend how fully the Southern people believed in state 
sovereignty, nor did it understand how deep was their affec- 
tion for their native states. Hostilities had begun in April, 
but three months passed and nothing of importance was 
accomplished or even planned. At fust many supposed the 
war would be over in ninety days. Now it appeared that 




The Capitol at Richmond, Virginia. 

Where the Confederate Congress met. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 275 




General McDowell. 



ninety days were likely to pass before the campaign would 
be fairly begun. 

The leading New York papers daily repeated the cry "On 
to Richmond." "On to Richmond" was echoed all over the 
North. General McDowell was placed in command of a 
Union army of nearly thirty thousand 
men, with a regiment of cavalry and 
more than fifty cannon, and ordered to 
attack the Confederate forces under 
General Beauregard, entrenched near 
Manassas Junction, along a stream 
called Bull Run. 

357. The Battle of Bull Run.— Here 
the first great battle of the war was 
fought on Sunday, the 21st of July. 
At the beginning the advantage was 
with the Union army, but in the after- 
noon the Confederates were reehforced by a number of regi- 
ments from the Shenandoah Valley. The advance of the 
Union forces was checked, and panic-stricken they made 
a hasty and disorganized retreat to Washington. General 
Sherman said of this battle: "It was one of the best planned 
battles of the war, but one of the worst fought." The Con- 
federate general, Joseph E. Johnston, said: "If the tactics 
of the Federals had been equal to their strategy, we should 
have been beaten." 

358. Results. — To the people of the North the battle of 
Bull Run showed that the contest could not be ended in three 
months. They began to realize that the con- 
flict might be one of years, and enlistments for „ , 

< 1 .i-i North, 

three years or the war were in order. Hence 

they prepared in earnest for a long and vigorous cam- 
paign. 



276 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The effect of the battle upon the South was just the reverse. 
It made the Southern people over-confident. Some of the 
soldiers thought that by their victory they had 
In the done all that their country required of them and 

returned to their homes. In fact, as General 
Johnston wrote, "the Confederate army was more disorgan- 
ized by their victory than that of the United States by 
defeat." 

The governments of Europe, not understanding the con- 
ditions under which the battle was fought, assumed that the 
Confederate armies had superior generals and su- 
perior fighting qualities and concluded that the 
South would finally succeed. 1 

359. General McClellan in Command. — General Scott, 
the hero of the Mexican War, was in command of the Union 
forces, but he was too old and too infirm for active service. 
George B. McClellan was chosen to take his place. McClellan 
had already, at this early period of the war, distinguished 
himself in several engagements in West Virginia, and his 
victories there had won that region for the Union. He at 
once set himself to the difficult task of organizing and dis- 
ciplining a great army. 

Meanwhile the Confederates, on their part, 
Continued . . '. . . . 

Prepara- greatly increased their forces in Virginia, and irom 

tions in now on were continually at work strengthening 

the South. an( j enlarging the defenses of Richmond. 

360. Military Operations. — In October, 1861, occurred the 
battle of Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, not far from Leesburg. 

1 One is here reminded of the reply of Paul Jones when the British 
admiral demanded of him, "Have you struck?" "No; I have not 
begun to fight yet." Having said this, Paul Jones then proceeded to 
capture the Serapis. In the same way, the Union army had not 
begun to fight. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 277 

Two thousand Federal soldiers under General Stone were 
ordered to cross the Potomac. They were attacked Ball's 
by a superior force of Confederates under General Bluff. 
Evans and driven back into the river. Nearly all were 
slaughtered. 

In Missouri a fierce struggle ensued between the Unionists 
and the Confederates. The majority of the inhabitants were 
for the Union, and the state did not secede. Sev- 
eral battles were fought here, the Confederates 
gaining victories at Carthage and at Wilson's Creek. In the 
latter battle, General Lyon, in command of the Union forces, 
was killed. 

361. The Trent Affair — Capture of Mason and Slidell. — 
The Confederate government, in the fall of 1861, commis- 
sioned James M. Mason and John Slidell as its agents to go 
to Europe and endeavor to secure from the governments 
of the Old World the recognition of its independence. The 
envoys ran the blockade successfully, reached Cuba, and there 
took passage with their secretaries on the British steamer 
Trent for England. Captain Charles Wilkes, who had 
formerly led the "Wilkes Exploring Expedition," now com- 
manding the United States steamer San Jacinto, overtook 
the Trent on the high seas, seized the Confederate envoys 
and their secretaries, and carried them to Boston, where they 
were confined in Fort Warren. The British government was 
indignant, and at once demanded that Mason and Slidell be set 
free, on the ground that the United States had no right forci- 
bly to stop an English ship on the high seas and take passen- 
gers therefrom. The Americans had always contended that 
British vessels should not stop American ships and take 
seamen or passengers from them. In accordance with this 
policy the United States government refused to sanction the 
seizure and returned the captured men to England. 



278 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

362. Policy of Great Britain and France. — Mason and 
Slidell did not succeed in getting the independence of the 
Confederacy acknowledged by any of the powers of Europe. 

The governments of Great Britain and France were, appar- 
ently, at one time desirous of making such acknowledgment, 
but were restrained from so doing. It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that the 'mass of the people in these 
countries desired the breaking up of the republic. On the 
contrary, it was evident that the great body of the people 
of Great Britain were friendly to the United States govern- 
ment. 

363. Belligerent Rights Acknowledged. — However, Great 
Britain and France both acknowl- 
edged the belligerent rights and 
] towers of the Confederacy. This 
gave to the Confederate vessels the 
privilege of taking refuge in foreign 
harbors. After a time, moreover, the 
English ship-builders began to build 
cmiscrs for the use of the Southern 

The Flag of the Con- government. 

FEDERACY. , _.,',,. ,.,-.,. 

364. The Mernmac and the Moni- 
tor. — The Confederates rebuilt an old United States frigate 
called the Merrimac, turned it into an iron-clad ram, and 
renamed her the Virginia. All of the boat that appeared 
above the water was encased in heavy iron plates, so that all 
sorts of shot and shell would rebound or glance off and do no 
harm. This new and strange sea-monster steamed out of 
Norfolk Harbor on the 8th of March, 1862, and attacked the 
United States fleet of war-vessels lying in Hampton Roads. 
That day she sunk the Cumberland, attacked the Congress, 
forced her to surrender, set her on fire, and as darkness was 
coming on steamed back to Norfolk, to the shelter of the 




LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 279 

Confederate batteries for needed repairs. Early the next 
morning, March 9, 1862, she proudly steamed forth again 
out of the harbor to finish her work of destroying the Union 
ships still remaining in Hampton Roads. 

As the Merrimac sailed onward towards the Minne- 
sota, which was fast in the mud, a small boat suddenly 
appeared upon the surface of the water, which was at once 
named by the Merrimac sailors "a Yankee cheese-box on 
a raft." This little boat, with a flat deck only just above the 
water's edge, was an iron-clad monitor, designed and built 
on an entirely new and original plan by Captain John Erics- 




The Battle Between the Merrimac and the Monitor. 

son (eVik-sun), a native of Sweden. She carried but two guns, 
which were in a revolving turret that rose midships above the 
flat deck. The explanation of the sudden appearance of this 
little boat was the fact that the Federal authorities knew 
the Confederates were rebuilding the Merrimac and had 
engaged Ericsson to build with all speed an iron-clad moni- 
tor. As soon as this Monitor was completed, she hastened 



280 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

away to Hampton Roads, arriving just in season to prevent 
the Merrimac from doing further harm. 

This tiny craft placed herself between the Merrimac (or 
Virginia) and the wooden war frigates. The great giant 
and the little giant began firing at each other, but with no 
effect on either side. Then the Merrimac ran full speed 
against the Monitor, but the blow was harmless. Five 
times the huge ram tried to sink the little iron-clad. The 
contest lasted full four hours, and apparently neither vessel was 
injured. It was clear, however, that the huge iron-clad could 
do nothing with her little antagonist. The small boat was 
shot proof, shell proof, and bomb proof; she could not be 
sunk; and being much smaller and requiring much less depth 
of water she could be handled, moved, and turned about 
much more easily and quickly than her big opponent. 

The Merrimac steamed back to Norfolk, and neyer 
sailed out again. Later she was destroyed by the Confed- 
erates. This brief contest had in a single day revolutionized 
all modern methods of naval warfare. Thenceforth wooden 
vessels played no part in contests on the water. 

365. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). — From this time to 
the close of the war Virginia was the principal battleground. 
The Union army now entered upon a new campaign. With a 
splendid, well-trained force, afterwards famous as the "Army 
of the Potomac," McClellan determined to move against the 
city of Richmond, the Confederate capital. His plan was not 
to march his large army directly across Virginia to Richmond, 
a distance of very nearly a hundred and fifty miles, through 
the country of the enemy, but rather to move it by water 
down the Potomac to the peninsula formed by the James and 
the York rivers. In this way the actual marching distance 
to Richmond would be lessened one half. Landing his army 
at Fortress Monroe, he marched up the peninsula to York- 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 281 

town. At this point his advance was checked by the Con- 
federate forces and he was delayed a whole month. McClellan 
Then occurred the battle of Williamsburg, after on the 
which McClellan pushed his army onward to the Penmsula - 
Chickahominy River. Here within a few miles of Richmond 
the battle of Fair Oaks was fought. General Johnston, the 




The Peninsular Campaign. 

Confederate commander,, was severely wounded and the com- 
mand of his army was transferred to General Robert E. Lee. 
Meanwhile, in the Shenandoah Valley, the Confederate 
leader, "Stonewall" Jackson 1 had been accomplishing great 

1 General Thomas J. Jackson was a West Pointer, served in the war 
with Mexico, and was General Lee's most valuable general. At the bat- 
tle of Bull Run, when the South Carolina troops were sorely pressed, 
General Bee, their commander, to encourage them cried out, " Look at 
Jackson, — there he stands like a stone wall." Ever after the troops 
called him "Stonewall Jackson." 



282 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

things. With the troops under his command he had out- 
T , , generaled three Union armies, each larger than his 
Campaign own, threatened Washington, and prevented Mc- 
in the Dowell, who with a Union force was marching 

southward, from joining McClellan. In addition 
to these honors, others were in store for him as he now joined 
Lee before Richmond. 

Thus reenforced by Jackson, Lee attacked McClellan. The 
seven days' battle was then fought. This included several 
Seven distinct engagements, among which were Gaines 

Days' Mill, Savage's Station, Fraser's Farm, and Mai- 

Battle. vern jjjjj During this battle of a week the loss 

in killed and wounded was very heavy, probably not less 
than fifteen thousand men on each side. 

At the close of the seven days' fight, McClellan withdrew 
with his army to the banks of the James River, where he could 
be supported by the gunboats. 

366. Disappointment in the North. — The Peninsular Cam- 
paign had ended in failure. Richmond had not been taken. 
The disappointment in the North was bitter. The President 
called for an additional three hundred thousand men, but 
recruiting was slow. The people of the North were dis- 
heartened. 

367. Pope's Campaign. — General John Pope was placed 
in command of an army of fifty thousand or more stationed 
for the defense of Washington. McClellan slowly sent his 
army around by water to Acquia Creek to unite with Pope. 
Lee determined to attack Pope before McClellan could arrive, 
and started northward with his army. He met Pope near the 
old battlefield of Hull Run and a fierce engagement followed. 
Pope was defeated with great loss and his army retreated in 
confusion to Washington. Lee now continued his march 
northward and crossed the upper Potomac into Maryland. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (18G1-1865) 283 




The First Invasion of the North. 



368. South Mountain and Antietam. — McClellan was 
ordered to intercept Lee with the remnants of his once splen- 
did Army of the Potomac, now reenforced by Pope's com- 
mand. He met the Confederates at South Mountain and 
won an easy victory. Then followed in September of that 
year (1862) the battle of 
Antietam. Jackson had 
captured Harper's Ferry 
and his forces had joined 
Lee. Opposed to the Con- 
federates was McClellan 
with his whole army. The 
conflict was severe. The 
result could hardly be 
called a victory for either 
side, although the advan- 
tage was decidedly in favor 
of the Union army. McClellan was constantly receiving re- 
cruits, and Lee suffered for want of supplies. Lee's advance 
northward was checked, and there was nothing for him to 
do but to withdraw his army to the other side of the Potomac. 
The loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners had been heavy, 
something like thirteen thousand on each side. 

Thus Lee's first invasion of Northern territory was stopped, 
and he was compelled to march his whole force back to 
his former position, south of the Potomac. We must now 
follow the two opposing armies across the Potomac, and 
observe their movements once more on Virginia soil. Some 
minor engagements took place, but McClellan did not give 
general battle, or seek an opportunity to do so. R emova i 
The entire North was fast becoming nervous, im- of 
patient, and sadly discouraged. Finally, on the McClell an. 
7th of November, McClellan received an order relieving him 



284 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

from the command and directing him to turn over the army 
to General Ambrose E. Burnside. Both armies moved on- 
ward past Warrenton, down the valley of the Rappahannock 
to Fredericksburg, the Union army keeping between Lee and 
Washington. 

369. The Battle of Fredericksburg. — Burnside's plan 
was to reach Fredericksburg before Lee could fortify there, 
cross the river by pontoon bridges, and choose the time and 
place for giving battle. He was, however, forced to wait a 
long while for his pontoons, and during the delay Lee posted 
his army on Marye's Heights and made strong fortifications. 
The main battle was fought on the 13th of December. Lee's 
army could not be dislodged from its strong position, so that 
the Union forces were obliged to retreat across the river. This 
was one of the worst defeats that the Union army suffered. 
The Federal loss was very large. It was now time for the 
two armies to go into winter quarters and to remain quiet 
till the next move could be put in operation. 

370. Operations Along the Seacoast. — While all these 
engagements w T ere occurring inland, there was great activity 
along the seacoast. In August, 1861, Commodore String- 
ham, of the navy, and General Butler, of the army, captured 
the forts on Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina. Later Commo- 
dore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman took posses- 
sion of Port Royal, South Carolina. Federal troops occupied 
Hilton Head, S. C, and from there naval expeditions were put 
in operation against various Southern ports. General Burn- 
side landed a large body of troops in North Carolina and 
acquired Roanoke Island and Newbern. St. Augustine, 
Fernandina, and other places in Florida fell into the hands of 
the Federals. General Gilmore took Fort Pulaski, Georgia, 
and Commodore Goldsboro captured Fort Macon, North 
Carolina. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 285 

The possession of all these places on the coast was of great 
advantage to the Federal government, and diminished the 
difficulty of maintaining the blockade. 




Field of Operations in Virginia. 

371. The War in the West. — During all this activity 
on the Atlantic slope, important things were happening in 
the Mississippi Valley. Vigorous efforts were made by the 
Confederates to bring about the secession of Kentucky and 
Missouri, but without success. 

372. General Albert Sidney Johnston. — The main force 
of the Confederates in the West was placed under the com- 



286 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




General McClellan. 




General Burnside. 




General Halleck. 



mand of General Albert Sidney John- 
ston, who soon showed himself one of 
the very ablest generals on the Con- 
federate side. He made every possi- 
ble effort to keep open the Memphis 
and Charleston Railroad. This was 
essential in order that the eastern and 
western sections of the Confederate 
army might remain in close touch 
with one another, and especially that 
the eastern army might be supplied 
with beef from Texas. Moreover, ( Jen- 
eralJohnston made strenuous endeav- 
ors to keep the Mississippi closed, so" 
that the Union army could not come 
up the river with its gunboats. 

373. Forts Henry and Donelson. - 
In Tennessee near the Kentucky bor- 
der, the Confederates had built two 
strongly defended forts, Fori Henry 
on the Tennessee River and Fort 
Donelson on the Cumberland River. 
Early in the year 1862, Commodore 
Foote and a fleet of gunboats cap- 
tured Fort Henry. The garrison es- 
caped to Fort Donelson, just a few 
miles away. General Giant, having 
sent the gunboats around and up the 
Cumberland to join in the attack, 
marched upon Fort Donelson. After 
three days' severe lighting, the two 
Confederate generals, Floyd' and Til- 
low, escaped, the one by taking pas- 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 287 




sage on a Confederate steamer, and 
the other by crossing the river in a 
boat while his staff retired to Clarks- 
ville. Buckner was left in command. 
The next morning Grant's troops were 
preparing for the final assault when a 
note was sent by Buckner to Grant 
asking on what terms he would receive 
the surrender of the fort. Grant im- 
mediately replied: "Yours of this date 

proposing armistice, and appointment General A.S.Johnston. 
of commissioners to settle terms of ca- 
pitulation, is just received. No terms 
except unconditional and immediate 
surrender can be accepted. I pro- 
pose to move immediately upon your 
works." 1 Buckner straightway sur- 
rendered. Grant then telegraphed to 
Washington: "We have taken Fort 
Donelson and from twelve thousand to 
fifteen thousand prisoners, including 
Generals Buckner and Bushrod R. 
Johnston; also about twenty thousand 
stands of arms, forty-eight pieces of 
artillery, seventeen heavy guns, from 
two thousand to four thousand horses, 
and large quantities of commissary 
stores." The Confederate line of de- 
fense was broken, and Nashville, Co- 
lumbus, and Bowling Green were soon 

Occupied by the Union forces. Then General Beauregard. 

1 This answer of Grant's was much quoted, and, ever after, his initials 
U. S. were said to stand for " Unconditional Surrender." 




288 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



New Madrid, Island Number Ten, and Fort Pillow on the 
Mississippi surrendered. 

374. The Battle of Shiloh. — Recovering from their 
defeats, the Confederates soon gathered a large force near 
Corinth, a place in Mississippi on the main line of railroad 
east from Memphis and a few miles west of the Tennessee 
River. The Union forces advanced up the Tennessee River 
in transports to Pittsburg Landing. There they disem- 
barked and marched forward to attack the Confederates. 
The Southern armv was under the command of General A. S. 




Field of Operations in the West. 

Johnston and General Beauregard. The two wings were 
in charge of Generals Bragg and Polk. These able and 
experienced generals, at the head of a force of between forty 
thousand and fifty thousand men, were determined to crush 
Grant's army before it could be reenforced by General Buell. 
The battle occurred on Sunday. April 6, and was fought 
with great fury. That afternoon General Johnston was killed 
and the command devolved on Beauregard. Grant's army 
was driven back to Pittsburg Landing, fighting stubbornly 
and suffering large losses. This day's battle was a decided 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 289 





Admiral Farragut. 



Admiral Foote. 



victory for the Confederates. But Buell's army arrived in 
the night, and on Monday the Union army drove the Confed- 
erates through the village of Shiloh. Beauregard retreated to 
Corinth and a little later to Tupelo (tu' pe-16), Mississippi. 

The battle of Shiloh was the most important battle which 
had been fought west of Virginia. General Halleck then took 
the field in command of the Union army in the West. Fol- 
lowing the Confederates by slow stages, he compelled the re- 
treat of Beauregard and stationed his entire force upon the 
Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Thus he cut off commu- 
nication between the eastern country and Memphis, and 
helped to secure to the Union the control of the Mississippi. 

375. Farragut and New Orleans. — Operations on the 
Mississippi were not confined to the northern section. The 
Confederates had fortified the lower Mississippi and had 
used every means to prevent the navigation of the river. 
They had numerous forts, iron-clads, and fire rafts, and had 
obstructed the channel with chains. Commodore Farragut, 
however, determined to sail past these obstructions and take 
the city of New Orleans. With a large fleet, carrying a land 
force of six thousand men, he succeeded in cutting the chains 
and passing the forts on the 24th of April, 1862. The next 



290 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




Field of Operations in the South- 
west. 



day the fleet anchored below the city. New Orleans, being 
at the mercy of the Union guns, soon surrendered, and the 
Federal land forces under General Butler took possession. 

Meanwhile the Confed- 
erate army had quietly 
withdrawn. Various en- 
gagements took place 
during the summer and 
autumn of 1S62, in dif- 
ferent parts of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, including 
those at Perryville, 1 
Iuka, Corinth, and Nash- 
ville. 

376. The Mississippi 
River. — The Union forces kept the river open above Vicks- 
burg, but the Confederates still held Port Hudson and Vicks- 
burg, which was strongly fortified. Farragut, running the 
gauntlet of the batteries at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, 
steamed up from New Orleans with his fleet as far as Memphis. 
377. Conditions at the Close of 1862. — In the summer of 
1861 the Federal army had been badly defeated at Bull Run. 

1 " The Union loss at Perryville was nearly four thousand, the Con- 
federate loss about three thousand. Near the close of the battle a 
curious thing happened to the Confederate General Polk. It was grow- 
ing dark and he unwittingly rode into the Onion lines, thinking them 
his own men firing on their friends. He angrily demanded why they 
were shooting their friends. The Union colonel, greatly astonished, 
answered, 'I don't think there can be any mistake about it. I am 
sure they are the enemy.' ' Enemy! ' rejoined Polk, ' Why I have just 
left them, myself. Cease firing, sir. What is your name? ' ' I am 

Colonel — — of the Indiana. Pray, sir, who arc you? ' Polk 

now saw his blunder and that his only hope of escape was to brazen it 
out. ' I will show you who I am,' he shouted. ' Cease firing.' Then 
cantering down the line he reached a copse, put spurs to his horse, and 
was soon back in his own lines." Battles and Leaders, Vol. Ill, 602. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 291 



During that year, the Confederates had gained several other 
victories. On both sides great armies had been organized. 
The blockade of the coast by the Federals had been ren- 
dered effective, and both governments had done their best 
to equip war-vessels for service. The Federals had saved to 
the Union Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, — three border 
slave states, — and had defended against the Confederate 
forces West Virginia and the national capital, Washington. 

During the second year of the war Forts Henry and 
Donelson, New Orleans, and Roanoke Island had been cap- 
tured by the Union army, and the first contest between 
armor-clad war-vessels had 
taken place. These en- 
gagements had all proved 
substantial victories for 
the Union cause. Thereby 
the Federal lines had swept 
across Tennessee, and the 
Mississippi River had been 
opened through nearly its 
entire length. 

Neither side had made 
any important gains in 
Virginia. The South had 
driven the Union army 
from the peninsula, and 
had gained a decided 
victory at Fredericksburg. 
The North had been saved from invasion at Antietam. 

None of the European governments had acknowledged 
the independence of the Confederate States, but several of 
them had given to the Confederacy belligerent rights. 

The expenses of the Mar had become so enormous that 




General Lee. 



292 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

both governments had resorted to the use of paper money. 
The Union Congress, early in 1862, had authorized the issuing 
Use of °' government notes, which were made legal tender 

Paper in payment of debts. These government bills were 

Money. called greenbacks because the backs of the bills 
were printed in green ink. At one time the amount of these 
bills in circulation had nearly reached the sum of five hundred 
million dollars. Each side had, also, issued interest-bearing 
government bonds amounting to many millions of dollars. 
Congress had not yet passed the bill authorizing the Na- 
tional Bank Currency. This was done early in 1863. 

378. The Real Cause of the War. — The war was not 
fought between the two sections for the purpose of retain- 
ing slavery or of abolishing slavery. On the part of the 
Southerners, it was to establish a government of their own, 
separate from the United States. On the part of the national 
government, it was to preserve the Union. Nevertheless, 
slavery was at bottom the real cause of the conflict. The 
public sentiment of the two sections had for a long time 
become more and more alienated. The bitterness that had 
dominated the minds of the abolitionists in the North, and 
the corresponding bitterness of the Southern people against 
the North, had for their common origin the difference of 
opinion of the two sections upon the slavery question. 

379. Emancipation. — President Lincoln had said that 
his sole object was to preserve the Union. But as the war 
progressed, the feeling at the North increased that, as slavery 
was the underlying cause of the war, the President should 
attack slavery as a war measure. After the battle of An- 
tietam, President Lincoln issued his first proclamation. This 
was only preliminary. It was a warning, a notice served 
upon the seceded states that if they continued their oppo- 
sition to the national government, he would at a later date 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 293 

declare their slaves free. This he would do, it was stated, 
as commander-in-chief of the military forces of the United 
States. Later, on the first day of January, 1863, he issued 
his second or real Emancipation Proclamation, declaring 
all slaves free in all the territory held by the Confederates. 

380. The End of Slavery. — This later proclamation, how- 
ever, did not abolish slavery throughout the United States. 
It did not apply to the border states which had not seceded. 
Slavery still existed, legally, in Delaware, Maryland, West 
Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. Slavery was finally 
made illegal by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu- 
tion, which was ratified by the requisite number of states 
in 1865, after the war was ended. 

SUMMARY 

As soon as Abraham Lincoln was elected President, South 
Carolina passed an ordinance of secession. The other Southern 
states followed her example. They then formed the Confed- 
erate States of America, and elected Jefferson Davis President. 
Fort Sumter was bombarded by the Confederates and surren- 
dered. Richmond, Virginia, was made the capital of the new 
government. Then immediately President Lincoln issued a call 
for troops. Both North and South made vigorous preparations 
for war. 

The Federals blockaded the Southern ports, and ordered an 
advance upon Richmond. The first battle was fought at Bull 
Run and resulted in a victory for the Confederates. 

An engagement took place in Hampton Roads between the 
big Confederate armored vessel the Merrimac and the little 
Union iron-clad Monitor. This contest revolutionized modern 
naval warfare. 

In the Peninsular Campaign the Confederate forces under 
Johnston and Lee repulsed the Union army commanded by 
McClellan. General Lee's advance into the North was checked 
at the battle of Antietam. The Federals were for the most 
part successful in the naval engagements, and th<> Union army 



294 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTOID 

gained many important victories in the West and opened along 
stretch of the Mississippi River. 

In January, 1863, President Lincoln issued his Emancipa- 
tion Proclamation, which set free the slaves in the seceded 
states. 



CHAPTER XXX 

LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (Continued) 

The Civil War (1863-1865) 

381. Chancellorsville. — After the Union defeat at Fred- 
ericksburg, Burnside was kept in command of the Army of 
the Potomac until the 26th of January, 1863, when he was 
relieved. General Joseph Hooker succeeded him. General 
Hooker at once began a complete reorganization of the army. 
He did not venture to attack Lee, but, meditating a flank 
movement, inarched a few miles up the Rappahannock to 
a place in the Wilderness called Chancellorsville. This 
was not a town, or a village even. The place had simply 
one house and in it a post-office. Here on the 2d and 'Ad of 
May was fought one of the great battles of the war. Hooker 
was obliged to retreat across the river. The loss was great 
on both sides. Lee had outgeneraled Hooker, but neither 
commander felt himself in a condition to renew the contest. 
In this battle Stonewall Jackson was killed. His deatli was 
a great disaster to the Confederate cause. 

382. Lee invades Pennsylvania. — Lee, encouraged by his 
defeat of Hooker, now determined to carry the war into the 
enemy's country. By rapid marches he crossed northern 
Virginia and Maryland, and witli a great army of between 
seventy and eighty thousand men invaded the state of 
Pennsylvania. General Hooker having resigned his com- 
mand, the President appointed General George G. Meade to 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 295 



take his place. Meade at once hurried forward the entire 
Army of the Potomac to prevent Lee from attacking Wash- 
ington or Baltimore. Meanwhile Lee was hastening on, evi- 
dently aiming at Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania. 

383. Gettysburg. — The borough of Gettysburg, the shire 
town of Adams County, is beautifully situated in a fertile 
region and had, at the time 



we are considering, a popu- 
lation of nearly three thou- 
sand. The Union forces, by 
rapid marches, pushed their 
way northward, until the 
advance under General Rey- 
nolds met the vanguard of 
Lee's army, on Seminary 
Hill, some distance north 
of the village of Gettysburg. 
General Reynolds was killed 
by a sharp-shooter, and 
then, until the arrival of 
General Howard, the command devolved upon General 
Doubleday. The Federals were forced back through the 
town, with constant skirmishing, until they finally took a 
position just south of Gettysburg along Cemetery Ridge. 
Cemetery Ridge is in the shape of a fishhook and Cemetery 
terminates at one end in Culp's Hill and at the Ridge, 
other in Round Top, a steep, rocky elevation of great 
strategic importance. The Union army had its right on 
Culp's Hill and from there it extended along the Ridge past 
the cemetery towards the west, and onward to the south- 
west for five or six miles, and had its left on Round Top. 
A part of Ewell's corps on the Confederate left attacked 
Culp's Hill and drove the Federal force back, but early in 




The Battleground of Gettysburg. 



296 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the morning of July 2 the place was retaken by Wads- 
worth's division of the Union army. 

On the second day (July 2), General Longstrcet made a 
brilliant assault at Round Top, hoping to secure that eleva- 
tion and so turn the Federal left, but was repulsed. 

The third day of the contest witnessed one of the most 
memorable battles of the entire war. Let us try to picture 
the scene. The Federal army of nearly eighty-two thousand 
men, with three hundred and fifty cannon, was posted upon 




Round Top and Little Round Top —The Battlefield 
of Gettysburg. 

the series of ridges from Gulp's Hill on the right to Round 
Top on the left. The Confederates numbered about seventy- 
five thousand men and had over two hundred cannon. They 
occupied an elevation of ground which was like an outer circle 
to Cemetery Ridge. Their right was opposite Hound Top and 
their left opposite Culp's Hill. Thus they extended over a 
distance of twelve miles. The space between the two armies 
was from one to two miles. 

About midday a heavy artillery fire opened on both sides 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 297 

and continued for an hour or an hour and a half, shot and 
shell belching forth from the mouths of two hundred and 
fifty guns. After a short lull came the famous Pickett's 
"Pickett's Charge," when fifteen thousand men Charge, 
deliberately marched from the Confederate center across 
the intervening mile or more, and attempted to carry the 
center of the Federal line. They were shot down by 
a most destructive artillery fire from the center on their 
front, from Round Top on their right, and from the Cemetery 
on their left. On coming nearer to the Federal lines they 
were met with a steady infantry fire. They wavered, they 
fell back, they retreated across that intervening mile. The 
attack upon the Federal center had failed. This charge was 
a wonderful instance of bravery. It was heroically made, 
heroically withstood. But the slaughter was terrible. The 
killed, wounded, and prisoners in this important battle 
numbered about forty-five thousand, and the loss was nearly 
-equally divided between the two armies. 

Lee had assaulted his enemy's right and failed. He had 
attacked the Federal left and been repulsed. He had moved 
against their center and been driven back. 1 The i nvas i on Q f 
next day, worn, weary, disappointed, disheart- the North 
ened, he turned back towards the Potomac, and Averted - 
the Southern army did not again attempt to invade the 
Northland. 

Gettysburg was the turn of the tide. It was the dawn of 

1 General Longstreet strongly disapproved of this charge by Pickett 
and his infantry. In his book "From Manassas to Appomattox," he 
writes: "Pickett said, 'General, shall I advance?' The effort to speak 
the order failed, and I could only indicate it by an affirmative bow." 
Then the General adds in a footnote: "A sobriquet of my boyhood was 
'Peter.' General Pickett had written to the lady who afterwards became 
his wife, but had not mailed his letter. After receiving his orders, he 
wrote on the envelope, 'If old Peter's nod means death, then good-by, 
and God bless you, little one.'" 




298 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

victory for the North, and its effect was discouraging in the 
extreme to the brave people of the South. Nor was Gettys- 
burg all. It did not stand alone as a Union victory. 

384. Vicksburg. — The Confederates had continued to 
hold one important place on 
the Mississippi River. They had 
strongly fortified Vicksburg, the 
largest city of Mississippi, and de- 
fended it by a large force. Gen- 
erals Grant and Sherman began 
their movement against this strong- 
hold in December, 1S62. Battle 
after battle occurred in the pre- 
liminary struggle, in which the Con- 
General Rosecrai federates were successful. In May, 

Grant laid siege, and attack after attack followed, but the 
city still stood firm. The Confederate army numbered full 
fifty thousand men and was under the command of Generals* 

Pemberton and Joseph E. Johnston. 
Grant had about an equal force, 
counting those engaged in protect- 
ing his communications. Grant dug 
twelve^ miles of trenches. His artil- 
lery included about two hundred and 
twenty guns, most of them field 
pieces. The fort was defended by 
one hundred and seventy-two guns, 

nearly fifty of them large siege guns. 
General G. H. Thomas. _,. n { , f ° ° 

finally, alter twelve days ot inces- 
sant bombardment, the Confederate garrison, cut off from 
relief and reduced to "one biscuit and a mouthful of bacon a 
day," surrendered on the 4th of July, 1863. 

General Sherman spoke of this as "one of the greatest 




LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 299 




General Hooker. 



campaigns in history." A few days later Port Hudson, 
farther south below Natchez, surrendered and the Mississippi 
River was open to its mouth. 

385. Chickamauga. — Chattanooga, a city in southern Ten- 
nessee, was an important point. Whichever army should hold 
it could control all eastern Tennessee 

and at the same time could attack the 
mountainous region of northwestern 
Georgia. In September, 1863, Rose- 
crans, in command of the Union forces, 
moved his army from Murfreesboro 
to Chattanooga. The Confederates, 
under Bragg, left Chattanooga and fell 
back about twelve miles south into 
Georgia. They were followed by the 
Federals. On September 19 and 20, 
near a creek called the Chickamauga, a fierce battle was 
fought. Bragg had been reenforced from Lee's army, so that 
he had about sixty thousand men, 
while the whole force under Rose- 
crans was about fifty-five thousand. 
The loss was heavy on both sides, 
each army losing in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners about seventeen thou- 
sand, nearly one third of the whole 
number. The Union army retreated 
to Chattanooga, while General Thomas 
and his command held back the Con- 
federates and covered the retreat. 

386. The Siege of Chattanooga. — For two months the 
Union forces were shut up in Chattanooga by Bragg and his 
army. Grant, after his success at Yicksburg, was ordered to 
the relief of Chattanooga. Missionary Ridge and Lookout 




General Meade. 



300 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Mountain, commanding heights held by the Confederates, 
were taken by sudden assaults (November 23, 24, and 25). 
Bragg's army then retreated to Dalton, and General Johnston 
took command of it. Meanwhile Longstreet, at the head of a 
Confederate force, had laid siege to Knoxville, which was held 
by the Federals under Burnside. He was unable to capture the 
city and he withdrew, taking his army across the mountains 
into Virginia, Thereupon military operations throughout that 
entire region were suspended till the following spring. 




Copyright, 1902, by Detroit Photographic Company. 

Lookout Mountain. 



387. The Year in Review (1863). — This year had been 
far more favorable than the previous year to the Union cause. 
In the West, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas 
had been firmly held, the Mississippi River opened, and the 
Confederacy divided. A new set of able generals had come 
to the front, notably Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan. On 
the other hand, the Confederate cause had lost rather than 
gained. Lee's army at Gettsyburg had been beaten and 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 301 



seriously weakened, and the capture of Vicksburg and Port 
Hudson, together with the movements around Chattanooga, 
all tended to show that the power of the Confederacy was 
failing. Indeed, it was evident that the necessary supplies 
for both the Confederate army and the people of the South 
were seriously diminishing. All men between the ages of 
eighteen and fifty were forced into service, and the soldiers 
were badly fed, clothed, and 
armed. West Virginia, proving 
herself loyal to the Union, sepa- 
rated from Virginia and was ad- 
mitted as a new state, June 19, 
1863. 

388. Beginning of the Year 
1864. — At the beginning of the 
new year locations and com- 
mands of the opposing armies 
had greatly changed. Grant was 
made lieutenant-general of the 
Union forces. The Union army 
was massed in two great divis- 
ions, of which one was under 
the direct supervision of Grant 
himself and the other under Sherman. The strength of the 
Confederates also was in two divisions, one with Lee in Vir- 
ginia, the other with Johnston in Georgia. Grant threatened 
Lee, and Sherman opposed Johnston. The Union authorities 
at Washington had planned a campaign which, it was be- 
lieved, would result in the capture of both the Confederate 
armies and in the consequent downfall of the Confederacy. 
The two divisions of the Union army were to begin operations 
at the same time. 

389. The Wilderness. — The entire Army of the Potomac 




General Joseph E. Johnston. 



302 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



was set in motion in the direction of Richmond. On 
the 2d of May, 1S64, the march began. The army crossed 
the Rapidan and pushed forward through the country known 
Grant as the Wilderness. Grant moved directly against 

against Lee. The struggle began almost immediately, and 
Lee - for several weeks the fighting was intense and the 

slaughter was the most terrible of the whole war. The ob- 
stacles confronting Grant 
were many and great. 
Before him was a deter- 
mined veteran army under 
(he command of officers 
brave, brilliant, and expe- 
rienced. He was in the 
enemy's country, which 
was indeed a wilderness. 
He showed his skill and 
strategy, especially by the 
simple device of flank 
movements. When Lee 
confronted him in a for- 
tified position, instead of 
engaging in a bull-dog 
attack in front, he simply marched his army past the enemy's 
flank and forced Lee to retreat to a new position. In this 
way, although with fearful slaughter, day by day he pushed 
forward, till in one month his army had reached the Chicka- 
hominy, and Lee, with his whole force, was within the de- 
fenses of Richmond. In this campaign of the Wilderness the 
entire loss on both sides was about forty thousand men, fully 
three fourths of which was from Grant's army. Yet even 
this great loss was better than long sieges and the inevitable 
diseases incident to camp life. 




General V. S. Grant. 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 303 



390. Richmond Defenses Impregnable. — It did not take 
long for Grant to discover that the defenses of Richmond 
upon the north side of the city were well-nigh impregnable. 
He therefore determined to make another flank movement. 
His plan was to push his army southward and so cut off the 
railroads which brought supplies to Lee's army. He moved 
his army around Richmond on the east, crossed the James 
River, and attacked Petersburg. 

391. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. — The most success- 
ful cavalry general in the Union army was the intrepid Phil 
Sheridan. Grant sent him and his 

brave cavalry into the Shenandoah 
Valley against General Early, who 
had gone down that valley on a raid 
to threaten Washington. Sheridan 
defeated Early at Winchester and 
Fisher's Hill, and Early retreated 
rapidly up the Shenandoah Valley. 
Receiving reinforcements, Early re- 
turned and surprised the Union forces 
at Cedar Creek. Sheridan had been 
called to Washington for consulta- 
tion. He returned as far as Winches- 
ter, where he passed the night. The next morning (October 
19), he started for Cedar Creek, and soon found stragglers on 
the road, hurrying to the rear. From them he learned that 
Early had attacked his forces and that a panic had ensued. 
He ordered them all to return and told them that they would 
whip Early and his army that day, and whip him badly. 
Still he continued to meet stragglers as he galloped along 
the road. "Turn, boys, turn," was his command; "we are 
going back to whip the rebels." The effect was magnetic. 
The men returned and, inspired by the presence of their 




General Sheridan. 



304 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

commander, won a decided victory. Early returned to 
Richmond and the Shenandoah Valley was left in peace. 1 

392. Sherman before Atlanta. — Meanwhile Sherman and 
his great army of one hundred thousand men was in the far- 
away Southland. He first moved against the Confederates 
at Dalton, Georgia. His plan was to drive that brave and 
skillful general, Joseph E. Johnston, into one of his strong- 
holds and then flank him and push forward. His force was 
larger than that of his antagonist, but he was in the enemy's 
country and fighting upon the offensive. He struck heavy 
blows upon the Confederate army at Dallas, Resaca, Lost 
Mountain, and Kenesaw Mountain. Finally, near the mid- 
dle of July, 1864, at the head of his army, Sherman pre- 
sented himself before the city of Atlanta, within whose 
fortified walls the Confederate army had retired. 

393. The Capture of Atlanta. — During the severe fight- 
ing all along the way from Dalton to Atlanta, Johnston had 
been kept most of the time on the defensive. He was just 

1 Sheridan's famous ride from Winchester has been immortalized in a 
poem by Thomas Buchanan Read : 

" Up from the South, at break of day, 
Bringing to Winchester fresh dismay, 
The affrighted air with a shudder bore, 
Like a herald in haste to the chieftain's door, 
The terrible grumble, and rumble, and roar, 
Telling the battle was on once more, 
And Sheridan twenty miles away. 

He dashed down the line, mid a storm of huzzas, 

And the wave of retreat checked its course there because 

The sight of the master compelled it to pause. 

With foam and with dust the black charger was gray ; 

By the flash of his eye, and the red nostril's play, 

He seemed to the whole great army to say : 

' I have brought you Sheridan all the way 

From Winchester down to save the day.' " 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 305 



preparing to move against Sherman when, by a special order 
from President Davis, he was removed from the command 
and General Hood put in his place. The Union officers were 
not displeased by this change. Their hope of success was 
greater than before and the courage of the entire Union 
army was strengthened. Sherman cut off completely Hood's 
line of supplies. Then nothing could prevent the fall of 
Atlanta. The city was evacuated on the 2d of September, 
1864. Sherman's policy through his entire march was to 



K E N T'-Tfc 




ATLANTIC 
OCEAN 



SCALE OF MILES 



Sherman's Campaign in Georgia. 

weaken the South and destroy, so far as possible, supplies 
for the army. Accordingly he here destroyed foundries, 
mills, and manufactories. 

394. Sherman's Success. — Sherman had now been four 
months on his campaign. He had fought ten pitched bat- 
tles and many minor engagements. He had lost, in killed and 
wounded, thirty thousand men. He had, however, inflicted 
heavy losses upon the Confederate forces and had destroyed 
great quantities of army stores. At Atlanta and other 



306 ESSENTIALS OF EXITED STATES HISTORY 

towns in Georgia there had been large manufacturing es- 
tablishments, which had furnished the Confederates with 
wagons, harnesses, clothing, and various sorts of military 
necessities. Sherman had also cut off these sources of 
supplies. 

395. Hood invades Tennessee. — By orders from Rich- 
mond, Hood made an unexpected move. He left Sherman 
and turned his entire force towards Nashville. The Union 
army had thus far received its supplies from Tennessee over 
a single line of railroad. It was thought by the authorities 
at Richmond that Hood's now movement would entirely 
cut off Sherman's communication and would prevent the 
Federal advance through Georgia. Moreover, it was believed 
that Sherman would be compelled to turn and follow him, 
and that the seat of conflict would thus be transferred back 
to Tennessee. But in this the Confederate government was 
mistaken. Hood met General Schofield with four divisions 
Battle of of the Union army at Franklin, where a fierce 
Franklin, battle was fought, the Confederates losing four 
generals and nearly six thousand men. The Union loss, in 
killed, wounded, and missing, was a little over two thousand. 
Schofield fell back to Nashville, destroying bridges and in 
various ways impeding the advance of Hood's army. Hood 
besieged Nashville, which was ably defended by Thomas. 
Thomas at It was already the first of December. After re- 
Nashville, sisting the siege for two weeks, Thomas marched 
his forces out of their entrenchments and for two days (De- 
cember 15 and 16) fought Hood's army, drove it from its 
position, captured thousands of prisoners, and forced the 
remainder to a precipitate retreat. Hood's army was de- 
stroyed and it was never reorganized. The loss to the South 
was irretrievable. 

396. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman, mean- 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 307 



while, had no intention of following Hood back to Nash- 
ville. On the 12th of November his communication with 
Nashville was broken. Cut loose from all supplies and 
confronted by no large military force, he at once divided 
his army into separate columns for foraging, and took up 
his march through the fertile section of Georgia toward Savan- 
nah. He thus provided food for his army of sixty thou- 
sand men from the country through which he passed. He 
destroyed the railroads and whatever 
could be of service to the enemy's 
army. After a march of five weeks, 
covering a distance of three hundred 
miles, he reached the coast, and on De- 
cember 21, 1864, captured Savannah. 
He had now finished with entire success 
one of the most famous marches in all 
modern history. On the theory that 
the source of supplies for the opposing 
armies must be cut off, he had de- 
vastated a tract sixty miles wide and three hundred miles 
long, or eighteen thousand square miles, in the heart of the 
enemy's country. The authorities at Washington had had 
no news from Sherman's army since he left Atlanta. Now, 
however, Sherman sent a message to President Lincoln which 
reached him on Christmas eve. It read thus: "I beg to 
present to you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah with 
one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammuni- 
tion, also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton." He 
then spent the winter in Georgia and South Carolina, haras- 
sing whatever forces he could find, everywhere cutting off 
supplies for the Confederate army. 

397. Mobile Bay. — The entire coast, as has been previ- 
ously stated, had been so successfully blockaded that only 




General Sherman. 



308 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

here and there a vessel succeeded in entering or leaving 
Southern ports. Mobile Bay, however, had constantly 
offered great opportunities for running the blockade. Here 
was stationed Admiral Buchanan, who had commanded the 
Confederate iron-clad Merrimac, in her fight with the Moni- 
tor at Hampton Roads. Buchanan had with him in the 
bay three gunboats and a ram. Moreover, the harbor 
was well protected at its entrance by three strong forts, — 
Admiral Gaines, Morgan, and Powell. Admiral Farragut, 
Farragut. w ith a fleet of fourteen wooden and four iron-clad 
vessels, attacked this fleet and these forts. The Confed- 
erate iron-clad ram Tennessee, a most formidable craft, 
was disabled and captured. The contest was severe and 
hazardous, for the air was so full of smoke that one vessel 
could not be seen from another. To get a clearer view of 
the operations, Admiral Farragut stationed himself in the 
vessel's shrouds above the dense smoke. His men remon- 
strated with him for thus exposing himself, and as he refused 
to leave the position one of his officers insisted on tying him 
to the shrouds, lest from a sudden lurch of the vessel, or from 
a wound received, he should fall into the water or upon the 
deck. The Confederate vessels were destroyed or forced to 
retreat. Fort Powell was abandoned, and Forts Gaines and 
Morgan surrendered. The contest lasted from August 5th 
to the 23d, 1864. 

398. The Confederate Cruisers. — Early in the war the 
Confederate government authorized privateers to prey upon 
the merchant marine of the United States. This privateer- 
ing was carried on during the entire four years of the war. 
Several of these Confederate vessels were built and manned 
in England. The most important of them were the Florida, 
the Shenandoah, and the Alabama. These cruisers, car- 
rying British guns and largely manned by British sailors, 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 309 

destroyed millions of dollars' worth of property and practically 
drove from the ocean vessels flying the Union flag. The 
year 1864 was an unfortunate one for these Confederate 
cruisers. In June the United States war-vessel, the Kear- 
sarge, sunk the noted Alabama off the coast of France. In 
August the Georgia was captured off Lisbon; in October the 
ram Albemarle was destroyed by a torpedo in the Roanoke 
River; and the Florida was captured and finally sunk. 

399. The Fall of Richmond (1865). — While Sherman was 
fighting his battles in Georgia and making his famous march 
to the sea, Grant was keeping Lee and the Army of Virginia 
busy around Petersburg and Richmond. So the winter 
wore away. Grant's army was constantly increasing. Lee's 
army was poorly clothed, scantily fed, and inevitably it was 
growing smaller. Late in March, Sheridan, with a large body 
of cavalry and a strong force of infantry, pushed out from 
Grant's left wing, on the south of Richmond, to cut off Lee's 
supplies. On the first of April he captured the garrison at 
Five Forks and took five thousand prisoners. Lee at once 
saw that he could no longer maintain his position. The 
next day, early in the morning, the Union army was put in 
motion along the entire line. Before noon the Confederate 
forts in many places were found to be deserted, and thou- 
sands of prisoners were captured. President Davis Flight of 
was at church when a messenger handed him a Davis, 
note informing him that Lee and his army were leaving 
Richmond. He at once left the church and hurriedly de- 
parted with his family and Cabinet from the city. That 
night the whole of the Confederate army left Petersburg and 
Richmond, and the next morning, Monday, April 3, 1865, 
the Federal troops marched into the Confederate capital. 

400. Lee surrenders at Appomattox. — Lee pushed for- 
ward toward Lynchburg, intending to make his way to North 



310 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Carolina and join Johnston, who was then in command of the 
entire Confederate forces opposing Sherman. Grant at once 
moved to intercept him. Sheridan with his cavalry passed 
beyond and cut off Lee's retreat to Lynchburg. The brave 
Confederate general was practically surrounded. Nothing re- 
mained for him but to capitulate. The two great generals, in- 
deed one might say the two greatest generals of America, met, 
and Lee proposed to surrender the remnants of his army. 




The McLean House. 

Where the surrender took place. 

So it came to pass that on the 9th of April, 1S65, the soldiers 
of the Army of Northern Virginia laid down their arms and 
turned their faces homeward. 

Nearly thirty thousand officers and soldiers surrendered. 
They were paroled not to take up arms against the United 
States until exchanged, ({rant's terms were the following: 
"The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up 
arms against the government of the United States until 
properly exchanged; and each company or regimental com- 
mander to sign a like parole for the men of his command. 
The arms, artillery, and public property to be parked and 



LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 311 

stacked and turned over to the officer appointed by me to 
receive them. This will not embrace the side-arms of the 
officers, nor their private horses nor baggage. This done, 
each officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, 
not to be disturbed by the United States authority so long 
as he observes his parole and the laws in force where he may 
reside." 

On the 26th of April Johnston surrendered his army to 
Sherman on the same terms as those on which Lee Johnston 
had surrendered his army to Grant. On May 4, Surren- 
General Taylor in Alabama surrendered to Gen- • 

eral Canby. In like manner the other Confederate forces 
laid down their arms. 

401. The End of the War. — Thus after' four years of 
hard fighting the Civil War was at an end. The people of 
the reunited country returned to the natural and more 
attractive vocations of peace. We have followed the brave 
armies of Federals and Confederates through the various 
important battles of the war. The men of the North 
had fought to preserve the Union, and the men of the 
South for what they believed to be their rights based on the 
doctrine of state sovereignty. The North had the larger 
population, more wealth and greater resources, and it had 
conquered. The Union was preserved and we became 
again one nation, of which both sections were eventually 
to unite more closely than ever before in mutual respect 
and loyalty to the national government. 

The Civil War was indeed a mighty struggle, bravely 
fought by the men of both armies. But it was a costly con- 
test. By it more than a million lives were lost, and the United 
States government was left with a national debt of nearly 
three billion dollars. The war had absolutely impoverished 
the South. Nevertheless a new era of a larger and truer 



312 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

prosperity was about to dawn upon the country. In the 
Dawn of North, especially in the Northwest, this pros- 
the New perity was already in progress; the advance there 
Era- in trade and agriculture was rapid. The South of 

course had to pass through a stage of painful and gradual 
reconstruction; then she too took her part in the general 
forward movement. It is indeed a fact that the growth and 
development of the entire country during the next forty 
years has been unparalleled in the history of the world. 

402. The Election of the President (1864). — Meanwhile, 
as the Civil War was drawing to a close, the time again re- 
turned for the ever recurring election of the President of the 
United States. In June, 1864, the Republican Convention 
nominated Lincoln for reelection, and Andrew Johnson of 
Tennessee for Vice-President. The Democratic Convention 
met in August and named General George B. McClellan for 
President, and George H.Pendleton of Ohio for Vice-President. 
The election in November resulted in twenty-one electoral 
votes for McClellan and two hundred and twelve for Lincoln. 
This vote was interpreted as an expression of approval of 
the prosecution of the war for the preservation of the 
Union and the abolition of slavery within the United States. 

SUMMARY 

After the battle of Chancellorsville the Confederate army 
invaded the North. The battle of Gettysburg followed and 
Lee was obliged to retreat. Vicksburg fell the next day, and 
later the Confederates were driven from Chattanooga. 

The following year the two opposing armies of the East 
were concentrated around Richmond, while Sherman invaded 
the South, captured Atlanta, and marching through Georgia 
took possession of Savannah. 

The next spring Richmond fell and Lee surrendered. The 
other Confederate armies laid down their arms, and the Civil 
War was ended. 



SECTION IV.— THE NEW NATION 

CHAPTER XXXI 

LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865- 1869) 

403. Inauguration. — Lincoln and Johnson were sworn 
into office on the 4th of March. So decided was the voice of 
the people that the feeling soon became general that the 
end of the war was near. It was nearer, however, than it 
seemed to many. President Lincoln made a hurried visit to 
consult with Grant. The Union army entered Petersburg 
April 3 and Grant sent for the President, who had already 
arrived at City Point. Mr. Lincoln hastened to meet 
Grant, and the two held an interview. The next day the 
President went to Richmond with Admiral Porter and a 
small company of marines. He entered the city on foot, 
escorted by six sailors in front and four in the rear. Be- 
tween these, without other escort, the President and his 
four companions marched to the late residence of Jefferson 
Davis. John G. Nicolay says: "Probably never before, in 
the whole course of history, did the ruler of a great nation 
make so simple and unpretending an entry into a /con- 
quered capital." The President then hurried back to Wash- 
ington. 

404. The Flag Raised Over Fort Sumter. — The 14th of 
April was the anniversary of the fall of Fort Sumter. When 
full arrangements had been made, General Robert Anderson 

313 



314 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

raised once more, amid the ruins of the fort, the identical flag 
which his own hands had been forced to haul down four years 
before. Interesting ceremonies took place and Henry Ward 
Beecher delivered an address which Mr. Nicolay describes 
as "filled with an earnest, sincere, and unboastful spirit of 
nationality; with a feeling of brotherhood to the South, 
prophesying for that section the advantages which her de- 
feat has in fact brought her; a speech as brave, as gentle, and 
as magnanimous as the occasion demanded." 

405. President Lincoln Assassinated. — On the evening 
of April 14, 1865, an important Cabinet meeting was held 
and reconstruction was discussed. General Grant and Cap- 
tain Robert Lincoln, the President's son, were present. After 
the meeting the President went to see the play "Our Ameri- 
can Cousin," at Ford's Theater. During the progress of the 
play, John Wilkes Booth, a fanatical secessionist, shot the 
President in the head and escaped. 1 Mr. Lincoln expired 
the next morning. Accomplices of Booth made attempts at 
the same time upon the life of Secretary Seward and of his son. 

Johnson took the oath of office and became President. 
The task that lay before him was, in some respects, the most 
difficult that ever confronted any President. It was nothing 
less than the reconstruction of a divided nation after four 
years of terrible civil war. 

406. "Jefferson Davis Arrested. — Meantime, President 
Davis had made his way to Georgia, where he was captured 
on the 11th of May. He was imprisoned for two years in 
Fortress Monroe and was then set at liberty. He lived till 
1889, making his home in his native state, Mississippi. He 
died in the city of New Orleans. 

1 Booth was finally shot in a barn to which he had been traced, about 
fifty miles from Washington, on the Rappahannock River. Four of the 
conspirators were hanged and four others were imprisoned. 



LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) 315 

407. The Sanitary Commission. — During the entire war 
there existed in the Union an organization with many 
branches called the Sanitary Commission, which furnished 
nurses, physicians, and attendants to look after the suffer- 
ing, the wounded, and the needy soldiers. Its duties were 
largely during and after battles. Its litters and ambulances 
were on the field before the battle was over. It provided 
hospitals, hospital cars, and hospital boats. The commis- 
sion received and expended five million dollars in cash, 
and contributions other than money variously estimated 




Caring for the Wounded on the Battlefield. 



from ten million to fifteen million dollars. Thus the entire 
cost of the work done by this commission was between fifteen 
million and twenty million dollars. A very large part of this 
money and of these supplies was raised by the women of 
the country. The Sanitary Fairs held everywhere, under the 
auspices of thousands of branches of this commission, strik- 
ingly illustrated the patriotism and the philanthropy of the 
people. 

408. The Christian Commission. — Another channel of 



316 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

aid to the soldiers of the Federal army was the Christian 
Commission. This organization supplemented the work of 
the Sanitary Commission. It gave to the soldiers the 
benefits and consolations of religion, which the overworked 
chaplains could not possibly give. The Christian Com- 
mission raised nearly five million dollars, and this money 
did an infinite amount of good among the sick and wounded 
soldiers of the army. Never before had such immense 
efforts been put forth to mitigate the sufferings incident 
to war. 

For the Southern army no such societies were formed. 
Heroism Individually, however, the people were as heroic 
in the and as self-sacrificing as any people could be. 

South. They did all in their power to lessen the sufferings 

incident to battles, marches, and garrison life. 

409. The Great Review in the City of Washington. — 
The month of May, 1865, was the time appointed for the 
great bulk of the two Union armies 
under Grant and Sherman to be mus- 
tered out and to return to their 
homes. In celebration of this event, 
it was arranged that there should be 
a grand military review in Washing- 
ton. The procession was over thirty 
miles in length, and for two days it 
moved past the reviewing stand on 
a m.ukw Johnson. Pennsylvania Avenue, where were sta- 
tioned the President, Andrew Johnson, his Cabinet officers, 
and many senators and congressmen. More than one hun- 
dred and fifty thousand soldiers, many of whom had served 
in the army four full years, marched between throngs of 
people, who were jubilant that the war was ended, and who 
gave strong expression of their gratitude to these returning 




LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) 317 

veterans. It was a marvelous sight, such as had never before 
been seen in any country. 

410. The Army Disbanded — Its Effect. — Great anxiety 
was felt by many lest these disbanded soldiers would not be 
able to return to their various industries and take up the 
quiet life they had led before the war. Such fears, however, 
were groundless. With very few exceptions the citizen- 
soldiers on both sides at once returned to their former occu- 
pations, and no disorders appeared in any part of the land. 
The mayor of one of the largest cities in the Eastern states 
certified that, in his judgment, "the service had no ill effect 
upon the character of our citizens who enlisted." Similar 
testimony throughout the different states was general. 

411. The Results of the War. — Many were the results 
of the war, and they continue to appear. Of these, the 
freeing of more than four million slaves comes first, perhaps, 
to mind. This, however, was the secondary rather than 
the primary outcome of the war. The main question settled 
was that the United States is a nation "one and indivis- 
ible," and that this nation takes rank as a leader among 
the world's powers, and not as two or more separate 
powers at enmity with one another. Because of the war, 
therefore, we are now in the front rank of the world's 
great nations. 

412. A Nation of Readers. — One immediate effect of 
the war was to make of us a nation of readers. During the 
progress of the contest every family within reach of a daily 
newspaper bought one and read it, to see if any ill had be- 
fallen the loved one who had gone from that family to battle. 
The habit of reading the daily papers once adopted was not 
discontinued. The great increase of newspapers, of maga- 
zines, and of books can thus be traced as one of the results 
of the war. 



318 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

413. Inventions and Industries. — The necessities and 
exigencies of the war stimulated inventions and industries 
of various sorts in all sections of the country. Previously 
the South had never engaged in manufacturing to any great 
extent, but since the war various industries have been fos- 
tered and encouraged until now the people of the South 
are formidable competitors with those of the North. The 
making of cotton cloth has become in some sections of the 
South a leading industry. 

414. The Constitution Amended. — For more than sixty 
years no change had been made in the United States Con- 
stitution. In 1865 Congress proposed the Thirteenth Amend- 
ment, which provided that "neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the 
party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the 
United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." 
This amendment was adopted by the necessary three fourths 
of the states the same year that it was proposed. 

The Fourteenth Amendment was adopted in 1868. It 
defined citizenship, fixed provision for the representation 
in Congress, and established the validity of the public debt 
of the United States. 

The Fifteenth Amendment, which secured suffrage to the 
colored race throughout the country, was ratified in 1870. 
It specified that the right to vote should not be abridged, 
either by a state or the nation, — 

1. On account of race. 

2. On account of color. 

3. On account of previous condition of servitude. 

415. Reconstruction. — The reconstruction of the states 
which had been at war with the national government was 
a difficult problem; it had no precedent in history, and pro- 
vision was not made for it in the Constitution. The Presi- 



LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) 319 

dent had one theory for the reconstruction of the seceded 
states, and Congress had another. President Johnson, on 
May 29, 1865, issued a sweeping proclamation of amnesty, 
by which nearly all who had been warring against the Federal 
government were pardoned, indeed all except the leaders. 
He then appointed provisional governors who should set in 
motion state governments in the South. Congress, which 
met in December, ignored the work of the President and 
devised a new plan far more stringent. This included the 
adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment by the several South- 
ern states. A bitter controversy between the President and 
Congress followed, till finally, in 1868, the House of Repre- 
sentatives voted to impeach the President. He was tried 
before the Senate and acquitted, the vote against him lack- 
ing one of the requisite two thirds. The vote of the Senate 
stood thirty-five for conviction and nineteen for acquittal. 

One by one the states which had seceded and formed the 
Confederacy accepted the plan which Congress proposed and 
were re-admitted. Tennessee was the first to regain its rep- 
resentation in Congress. This was in 1866. But not till 1870 
did all the states accede to the terms proposed by Congress. 

416. Carpet-Baggers. — Then followed the period when 
the freed slaves voted, and in some states controlled the 
government. They were oftentimes led by unscrupulous 
men from the North who were called "carpet-baggers." 1 

1 The adventurers from the North were called " carpet-baggers " be- 
cause it was said that each one when he went to the South was able to 
carry all his property in a carpet-bag. They were aided by Southern 
white Republicans known as "scalawags." To oppose the unscrupulous 
schemes of the ignorant negroes and the carpet-baggers a secret society 
called the " Ku Klux Klan " was organized. The members, in disguise, 
made night raids and not only frightened the superstitious negroes, but 
also succeeded in driving many of the scalawags and carpet-baggers out 
of the South. 



320 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The results were scandalous. The state treasuries were 
plundered and the state debts were greatly increased. The 
ignorant negro voters were easily led into the corrupt busi- 
ness, but it was the carpet-baggers who generally managed 
to get the lion's share of the plunder. 
The political condition of the Southern states for a dozen 




On the Dog Trail in Alaska. 

years after the war was deplorable in the extreme. Gradu- 
Southern ally, however, affairs have been righting them- 
Poiitics. selves. The people there still have serious ques- 
tions to contend with. One of these difficult problems is 
that of the negro — his position, and his right to vote. 
But that whole section is rapidly gaining in strength, 
wealth, and industry. 

417. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 William H. Seward, 



LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) 321 

secretary of state, made a treaty between our country and 
Russia, by which Russia relinquished to us all her possessions 
in North America, and by which we agreed to pay her the 
sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars. This 
added nearly six hundred thousand square mile to our terri- 
tory. Since then we have secured from that far-away coun- 
try of Alaska furs, fish, and lumber of a value much greater 
than the purchase money. 

418. The Atlantic Cable. — Several attempts to lay a 
cable across the Atlantic Ocean had been made, and had 
proved failures. On the 27th of 
July, 1866, permanent communi- 
cation by sub-marine cable was 
opened between this country and 
Great Britain. This result was 
due to the persevering efforts of 
Cyrus W. Field, of New York, who 
had devoted himself to the project 
for more than a dozen years be- 
fore success crowned his labors. 

To-day there are fourteen lines in 
operation across the North Atlan- 

. Cyrus W. Field. 

tic alone. 

419. China and Mexico. — In the year 1868 China, 
through its agent, Anson Burlingame, negotiated a treaty 
with our government — the first treaty that China had 
made, of her own accord, with any foreign nation. By 
this treaty China accepted the principles of international 
law and granted important commercial advantages. She 
also gave many rights to Americans living in China. 

The government of France, under the emperor, Napoleon 
III, demanded the payment of certain Mexican bonds held by 
the French, and as Mexico could not pay, Napoleon sent over 




322 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

an army, conquered Mexico, and placed Maximilian, archduke 
of Austria, upon the throne as emperor. This action was so 
contrary to the Monroe Doctrine, so called, that our gov- 
ernment could not submit to it. We waited, however, till 
after the close of the Civil War, and then sent General Sheri- 
dan with fifty thousand veteran troops into Texas. The 
French army was withdrawn, and a Mexican army captured 
the capital and took the emperor prisoner. Maximilian was 
executed and once more a republic was formed for Mexico. 
420. Presidential Election (1868). — Reconstruction of the 
Southern states was the leading question at this time. The 
Republican party nominated for President Ulysses S. Grant, 
and for Vice-President Schuyler Colfax of Indiana. The 
Democratic party named for President Horatio Seymour, 
ex-governor of New York, and for Vice-President Francis 
P. Blair of Missouri. Of the two hundred and ninety-four 
electoral votes, Grant and Colfax received two hundred and 
fourteen and were elected. 

SUMMARY 

On the same day that the United States flag was again raised 
over Fort Sumter, President Lincoln was assassinated. He 
was succeeded by Vice-President Johnson, who was confronted 
by the great task of reconstructing the Southern states. The 
Union armies were disbanded and the soldiers quietly returned 
to their homes. The thirteenth amendment, which abolished 
slavery, was adopted, and this was followed by the fourteenth 
and by the fifteenth, which gave suffrage to the negroes. 

Serious disagreements occurred over the methods for recon- 
struction of the states which had seceded. Congress impeached 
the President but failed to convict him. 

During this administration Alaska was purchased, the Atlan- 
tic cable was successfully laid, and a treaty was made with 
China. Emperor Maximilian was executed in Mexico and the 
republic restored. 




t« 2 <»« -l-sio-cli-e 

P ^q 353 3 S3 S 5 

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GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (1869-1877) 



323 



CHAPTER XXXII 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (1869-1877) 

421. The First Pacific Railroad. — During the Civil War the 
subject of a railroad over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific 
coast was discussed. It was thought to be almost an impos- 
sibility. As early as 1862, however, an act was passed by 
Congress incorporating the Union Pacific Company, which 
built the road from Denver, Colorado, to Ogden, Utah. Later 
the government extended its aid until this company had re- 
ceived twenty-seven million dollars in money and twelve 




Building the First Trans-Continental Railroad. 

million acres of government land. Meanwhile the Central 
Pacific Company, which constructed the road from Ogden to 
the Pacific coast, received a subsidy from the government to 
the amount of twenty-seven million dollars and eleven mil- 
lion acres of land. On May 10, 1869, the road was open for 
transportation from the Altantic to the Pacific coast. To- 
day there are six through lines from the great central valley 
to the western coast. Still others are projected. 



324 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

422. The Treaty of Washington and the Alabama Claims. — 
During the Civil War, as we have previously noted, several 
vessels built in England became Confederate privateers, 
preying upon American commerce. Great Britain, however, 
had declared neutrality in the war. The United States 
government therefore claimed that the British government 
was responsible for the damages to our commerce and our 
citizens. Representatives of the two governments met at 
Washington in 1871, and on the 8th of May a treaty was 
signed, referring all these matters in dispute to arbitration. 
Many of our statesmen, long before this, had felt that arbi- 
tration was a better method of settling international disputes 
Arbitrators than was an expensive and destructive war. The 
Appointed, arbitrators — five men — were to be appointed, 
one by each of the five countries, Great Britain, the United 
States, Switzerland, Italy, and Brazil. These arbitrators met 
at Geneva in September, 1872, and after a full hearing of 
the case agreed that the British government should pay the 
United States fifteen and a half million dollars. 

423. Our Northwest Boundary. — By the same treaty of 
Washington the emperor of Germany was made arbiter to 
determine another dispute between the United States and 
Great Britain in regard to our extreme northwestern boun- 
dary. Emperor William decided that the channel named in 
the treaty of 1846 was the one to the north and west of the 
island of San Juan (hob-an'). This decision gave the island 
to the United States, in accordance with our previous claims. 
Then, for the first time in our history, the entire boundary 
of the United States was undisputed. 

424. The Fishery Dispute. — Since the War of 1812 there 
had been disagreement in regard to our fishing rights on the 
coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. By the treaty of 
Washington this dispute was referred to a commission of 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (1869-1877) 325 

three men, appointed as follows: one by the President of the 
United States, one by the Queen of England, and the 
third by the President and the Queen conjointly. Finally, 
though not till 1877, this commission met at Halifax and 
agreed that the United States should pay to Great Britain 
the sum of five million five hundred thousand dollars. Al- 
though the United States thought the amount exorbitant, 
yet it was paid and the principle of arbitration was sustained. 




An Indian Encampment on the Blackfoot Reservation. 

Here, then, as the results of a single treaty between the 
United States and Great Britain, we have three important 
questions settled by arbitration, and the verdict accepted 
and the requirements met by the two governments. 

425. The Indians. — During Grant's administration we had 
serious difficulties with the Indian tribes of the great West. 
The Sioux Indians were for a long time troublesome; the 
Modocs of southern Oregon brought on the bloody General 
Modoc war, and the Sioux war of 1876 followed. Custer's 
General Custer and his brave band were all slaugh- Fl g ht - 
tered by a force of Sioux Indians, numbering ten times as 



326 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

many as his own army. But these troubles finally passed. 
Now by a wiser treatment of the Indians, a more friendly 
feeling prevails throughout the entire Indian country. 

426. Great Fires in Chicago and Boston. — The prosper- 
ous condition of our country is shown by the way in which 
its cities have recovered from the effects of big fires. In 
October, 1871, the city of Chicago was swept by flames which 
destroyed more than two hundred million dollars' worth of 
property. In November of the next year Boston suffered a 
loss of seventy-five million dollars by a fire covering sixty 
acres, in the center of the business portion of the city. 
Each city began at once to rebuild on a more substantial 
basis, and in a singularly short time all signs of the fire had 
disappeared. Indeed the new buildings and the more 
modern improvements have greatly increased the business 
of each city. Other great fires in various cities have pro- 
duced similar results, so that these large conflagrations have 
seemed to prove blessings in disguise. 

427. Grant's Reelection (1872). — The Republican party 
nominated Grant for reelection, with Henry Wilson of Mas- 
sachusetts for Vice-President. The Democrats and Liberal 
Republicans chose for their candidates Horace Greeley, editor 
of the New York Tribune, and B. Gratz Brown of Missouri. 
Grant and Wilson were elected. 

428. Business Depression in 1873. — The country had 
passed through a period of great prosperity and the con- 
ditions led to unwise speculations. More railroads were built 
than the country needed or could well afford. Millions of 
capital wore 1 invested in enterprises which could not be pro- 
ductive for many years. The natural currents of business 
were disturbed, as they had previously been in 1837 and 1857. 
The depression lasted for several years, but by 1880 the en- 
tire country was once more feeling the full tide of prosperity. 



GRANT'S ADMIN ISTRATION (1869-1877) 



327 



429. The Centennial Celebration at Philadelphia. — In 

1876 was held, in the city of Philadelphia, a World's Fair 
to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. Ten million visitors from our own 
country and from all parts of Europe viewed the results of 
the world's industries, thereby gaining an education in the 
progress of the nations such as no other means could have 
furnished. 

430. Weather Bureau. — By the year 1870 the Weather 
Bureau had been established. During this administration it 






Fair Weather Rain or Snow. 

Storm warnings. 



Temperature Cold Wave 



^ 




HKi'riraite 
warning. 



NE. winds SE. winds. NW. winds SW. winds. 

Flags Used by the Weather Bureau. 

came into active service. At first this bureau was connected 
with the War Department, but in 1891 it was reorganized 
under the Department of Agriculture. At the present time 
the bureau has six hundred employees at about two hundred 
stations, and from these stations it receives, twice a day, 
weather telegrams, on which are based, morning and evening, 
weather charts and forecasts for the next thirty-six hours. 
These forecasts are given to vessels about to sail, to news- 
papers and flag stations, and are spread abroad by these and 
other methods of communication. 



328 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




Alexander Graham Bell. 



431. The Telephone. — In the year 1876, Alexander 
Graham Bell received letters patent for improvements in 
telegraphy, especially for the transmission of vocal sounds. 

Since that time the Bell Tele- 
phone has come into very gen- 
eral use all over this country 
and in foreign lands. Long 
distance telephones are now 
in successful operation, cover- 
ing distances of even a thou- 
sand miles, as, for example, 
between New York and Mil- 
waukee or St. Louis. 

432. Admission of New 
States. — Since the year 1850 
states have been admitted as 
follows: California in 1850; 
Minnesota in 1858; Oregon in 1859; Kansas in 1861; West 
Virginia in 1863; Nevada in 1864; Nebraska in 1867; Colo- 
rado in 1876; and to finish the list as it stood at the close of the 
century: North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Wash- 
ington in 1889; Idaho and Wyoming in 1890; and Utah in 
1896. 

433. Presidential Election (1876). — The Republicans 
nominated Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, and 
William A. Wheeler of New York. The Democrats named 
Samuel J. Tilden of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks 
of Indiana. The election proved very close. The vote of 
three states was disputed — South Carolina, Florida, and 
Louisiana. Tilden had one hundred and eighty-four elec- 
toral votes without these three states, but one hundred and 
eighty-five votes were necessary for election. If the votes 
of all three of these states should be counted for Hayes, he 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (1869-1877) 329 

would be elected. If any one of the three was counted for 
Tilden, he would be elected. The returning boards of these 
states gave certificates of election to the Hayes Election 
delegates, and the governors gave certificates to Contested, 
the Tilden electors. In Congress the House was Demo- 
cratic and the Senate was Republican. The question was 
how the votes should be counted. Neither party would 
yield. Intense excitement prevailed everywhere. There 
was danger of civil war. It was proposed by the Tilden 
advocates to raise an army to prevent the seating of Hayes. 
Many a national revolution has taken place under condi- 
tions far less serious. But the leading men of Congress of 
both parties had enough good sense to wish to avoid a revo- 
lution at all hazards. The two houses of Congress finally 
agreed to leave the decision to an Electoral Commission of 
fifteen, consisting of five members from the Senate, five 
from the House, and five from the United States Supreme 
Court. This Commission decided the question of all the 
three disputed states and also the case of one disputed 
elector from Oregon in favor of Hayes. Thus Hayes was 
elected by a vote of one hundred and eighty-five as against 
one hundred and eighty-four for Tilden. 

SUMMARY 

The principal events of Grant's administration were: the 
completion of the Pacific railroad; the settlement by arbitra- 
tion of the Alabama claims, of the Northwest boundary, and 
of the fishery dispute; Indian wars in the West; a great busi- 
ness panic; the Centennial Exposition; the formation of the 
Weather Bureau ; the invention of the telephone ; and the con- 
test over the presidential election. 



330 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



CHAPTER XXXIII 



HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION (1877-1881) 

434. Unusual Conditions. — Hayes entered the White 
House under circumstances more adverse than any which had 
previously confronted a President. Party feeling ran high, 
and although the country at large accepted the decision of 
the Electoral Commission, yet half the people felt that an 
injustice had been done. The new President, however, 
showed good judgment and broad statesmanship, and his 
term was productive of much good to the country. 

435. Troops Withdrawn from the South. — Up to this 
time United States troops had been 
kept in all the Southern states and the 
"carpet-bag" governments had been 
upheld in them. This meant that the 
leading men in the Southern states 
were not permitted to control their 
affairs, but that the government was 
carried on by carpet-bag- Carpet- 
gers from the North and the daggers. 

colored men of the South. It was 

Rutherford B. Hayes. 1 • 1 ,1 , 1 ,1 • a ,■ >i 

claimed that, by the influence of the 

army, Republicans were kept in office who were strongly 
opposed by a majority of the Southern white people. Presi- 
dent Hayes removed the United States troops, and the 
Southern states were left unhindered to work out their own 
problems. The Southern Democrats took control of affairs 
and before the close of Hayes's administration much of the 
ill-feeling against the national government had passed away. 

436. Civil Service Reform. — Ever since the close of the 
war it had become more and more evident that a radical 




HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION (1877-1881) 331 

reform was needed in the civil service. Since the time of 
Andrew Jackson, the political motto had been "To the victor 
belong the spoils," but the true motto should have been 
"Public office is a public trust." The people declared that 
so long as government positions should be given as a reward 
for political activity or party service, so long would persons 
unfit to hold responsible positions get the appointments. 
They demanded a more businesslike method of managing 
public affairs. President Hayes did all he could to inaugu- 
rate and support this reform. 

437. The Mississippi Jetties. — During this administra- 
tion an important industrial event occurred. The Mississippi 
River had for a long while been bringing down to its mouth 
a vast amount of sediment every year. As a result, the 
mouth of the river had become shallow and new channels 
had formed, so that the Mississippi had many outlets. Navi- 
gation was greatly hindered. In the year 1875 James B. 
Eads, a civil engineer who had already constructed the 
famous steel bridge across the river at St. Louis, undertook 
to build jetties to deepen the water at the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi River. This he accomplished with entire success. 
The channel, which had been eight feet deep, became more 
than thirty feet in depth. Thus the largest vessels were 
able to enter it with perfect ease. The channel continues 
to maintain its full depth. These jetties were the means of 
saving millions of dollars, which otherwise would have been 
expended in dredging. They consist of stone walls on each 
side of the river, which confine the current to a narrower 
limit and thereby increase its rapidity. Since these walls 
extend a long distance beyond the land into the sea, the 
sediment is pushed through and out into the gulf. 

438. Resumption of Specie Payments. — During the war 
the banks all over the country suspended specie payments; 



332 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

that is, they were unable and hence refused to redeem their 
paper money in coin. The national government also sus- 
pended specie payment; that is, it refused to give gold or 
silver for its "greenbacks." 

However, coin enough was gradually accumulated in the 
treasury, and John Sherman, the secretary of the treasury, 
in accordance with an act passed by Congress four years 
before, advertised that on the first of January, 1879, the 
government would pay gold or silver for any and all "green- 
backs" which the people might present for payment. This 
announcement was carried out and specie payment was re- 
sumed all over the country. 

439. The Election of 1880. — This year the Republicans 
nominated General James A. Garfield of Ohio, and Chester 
A. Arthur of New York. The Democrats chose General Win- 
field S. Hancock of New York, and William H. English of 
Indiana. A third party, the Greenback party, nominated 
James B. Weaver of Iowa, and a fourth candidate, Neal 
Dow of Maine, was put forward by the Prohibitionists. 
Garfield was elected by a vote of two hundred and fourteen 
as against one hundred and fifty-five for Hancock. 

SUMMARY 

President Hayes showed his broad statesmanship by remov- 
ing the United States troops from the South and letting the 
people control their own affairs. He also inaugurated civil 
service reform. 

The Mississippi jetties were built during this period. 
Specie payments were resumed. 



GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION (1881-1885) 333 



CHAPTER XXXIV 



GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION (1881-1885) 

440. Party Feuds. — The opening months of the new 
administration were chiefly occupied with a struggle over 
appointments. There were two wings of the Republican 
party. On one side were the "Stalwarts/' as they were 
called, led by Senator Conkling of New York, and on the 
other side the "Half Breeds," under the leadership of Blaine 




James A. Garfield. 



Chester A. Arthur. 



and Garfield. The "Stalwarts" proposed certain appoint- 
ments which the President did not indorse. This led to 
heated political differences. 

441. Garfield Assassinated. — Garfield had been in office 
not quite four months. He was overcoming these party 
difficulties, and matters were settling down to a proper work- 
ing order, when a shocking tragedy occurred, which startled 
the entire nation. The President had planned a pleasant 
outing. He was on his way to attend the commencement 
exercises at Williams College, of which he was a graduate, 
and from there he was to go to the American Institute of 
Instruction at St. Albans, Vt., and to the White Mountains. 



334 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

On the morning of July 1, in company with Mr. Blaine, 
the secretary of state, he was standing in the Pennsylvania 
Railroad Station at Washington. There he was shot by a 
disappointed office seeker. He lingered, a great sufferer, till 
on the 19th of September he died. The assassin was fried, 
convicted, and hanged. Garfield was the fourth President 
to die while in office; two of these four died by disease and 
two by the hands of assassins. 

442. Arthur as President. — Vice-President Arthur was 
sworn in as President, and held office the remainder of the 
four years. He was a man of ability, though not widely 
known in political circles. During his term he showed good 
judgment, and was successful in the management of affairs. 

443. The Anti-Polygamy Bill. — In 1882 a bill introduced 
into Congress by Senator Edmunds of Vermont passed both 
houses and was signed by the President, by which polygamy, 
which was still practiced by the Mormons in Utah and other 
territories, was prohibited. Some years later, when the law 
was enforced by the government, the Mormon Church an- 
nounced that it had abandoned polygamy and would, here- 
after, respect and obey the law. 

444. The Civil Service Bill. — The assassination of Presi- 
dent Garfield directed the attention of thoughtful persons 
all over the country to the evils of the "Spoils System," 
and two years after his death, Congress passed the Pendle- 
ton Civil Service Bill. By this bill it was enacted that the 
President should appoint commissioners to institute ex- 
aminations for the candidates for various positions. At 
first the examinations related to a few offices only, but the 
application of the law has been gradually extended till now 
it embraces a great variety of offices and is applied to 
many thousand persons. The system has been adopted by 
several states. 



GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION (1881-1885) 335 

445. Clocks and Watches. — Clocks and watches are the 
result of modern invention. In the colonial times our fore- 
fathers had but few timepieces of any description. In many 
places the farmers built their houses facing the south. For 
this there were two reasons. By this arrangement the living- 
rooms were on the south side and had the sunlight and heat. 
Moreover, at noon, which was the colonial dinner hour, the 
sunshine left the east end of the house and appeared on the 
west end, and by this sign the farmer and his hired man 
could tell the time and leave the field and go to dinner. Early 
in the last century clocks and watches became more common, 
and their use increased until hardly a family was without 
a timepiece. But the building of railroads and the interests 
of the traveling public made necessary another improve- 
ment in the keeping of time. 

446. Standard Railroad Time. — In 1883 a standard of 
time known as railroad time was adopted and came into use 
all over the country. Thereby it was agreed to establish 
hour circles and to divide the country into four sections, 
keeping the time uniform throughout each of the sections. 1 
Thus there became an "eastern time," a "central time," a 
"mountain time," and a "Pacific time." When it is noon 
in the Atlantic states, it is nine o'clock a. m. on the Pacific 
slope; a traveler going from Bangor, Maine, to San Fran- 
cisco sets his watch back one hour at Buffalo, New York, 
another hour at North Platte, Nebraska, and once more at 
Ogden, Utah. 

447. The Election of 1884. — The Democrats nominated 
Grover Cleveland of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks 

1 The sun travels over fifteen degrees of longitude in an hour. By the 
old method, the sun at noon regulated the time. Hence the time at any 
place fifteen degrees to the east of another place would be one hour later, 
and half that distance to the east, half an hour later. 



336 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of Indiana. The Republican candidates were James G. 
Blaine of Maine, and General John A. Logan of Illinois. 
The Greenback party nominated General Benjamin F. But- 
ler of Massachusetts, and A. M. West of Mississippi. The 
Prohibitionists chose John P. St. John of Kansas, and 
William Daniel of Maryland. Cleveland and Hendricks were 
elected, receiving two hundred and nineteen electoral votes 
to one hundred and eighty-two for Blaine and Logan. This 
was the first time a Democrat had been elected President 
since 1856. 

SUMMARY 

A division in the Republican party in regard to the filling 
of offices led to difficulties. The President was overcoming 
these party differences when, having been in office only four 
months, he was assassinated by a disappointed office seeker, 
and died after two months of suffering. As a result of this 
tragedy the Pendleton Civil Service Bill was passed. A stand- 
ard of railroad time was adopted and proved a great conven- 
ience to travelers. 

— <ifc — 

CHAPTER XXXV 

CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1885-1889) 

448. Civil Service Reform. — In spite of party pressure, 
Cleveland favored civil service reform, and kept in office 
many Republicans. Under his leadership, moreover, other 
classes of public offices not yet covered by the reform were 
brought under civil service rules. 

Though the Senate was Republican and the House Demo- 
cratic, several important acts were passed and approved by 
President Cleveland. 

449. Presidential Succession. — A bill was passed by 
Congress and approved by the President (1886) which pro- 



CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1885-1889) 337 



vided that in case of the death or disability of both President 
and Vice-President, the secretary of state should become 
President and hold office during the remainder of the four 
years. In case there be no secretary of state, or in case 
of his disability, the office shall fall to the other members 
of the Cabinet in the order in which 
the several departments were cre- 
ated: viz., the secretary of the 
treasury, secretary of war, attor- 
ney-general, postmaster-general, 
secretary of the navy, secretary of 
the interior. 1 This bill provides 
that, if any member of the Cabinet 
should not be qualified, his name 
be passed over and the presidential 
office be assumed by the next in 
order. 

450. Electoral Count Bill. — A 
bill introduced by Senator Edmunds of Vermont was passed 
by Congress and became a law in 1887. It established in 
detail a method of counting the votes for President and Vice- 
President, and was designed to prevent in the future any 
such difficulty as occurred in 1876. 

451. Interstate Commerce Bill. — The Interstate Com- 
merce Bill was adopted by Congress and became a law in 
1887. Its object was to insure to all uniform passenger 
fares and freight charges. Hitherto there had been com- 
plaints that the large dealers had cheaper rates, or could 
procure rebates for their freight. Under the Interstate 




Grover Cleveland. 



1 Two departments have been added since, viz., Agriculture, and 
Commerce and Labor; but since these offices were not established when 
the law was passed the secretaries of these departments are not included 
in this succession. 



338 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Commerce Law this discrimination was prohibited. A per- 
manent commission was appointed to oversee all railroads 
carrying passengers and freight from one state to another. 

452. Chinese Exclusion Act. — Since the treaty of peace 
with China in 1868, there had been a large and rapid immi- 
gration of the Chinese to America. At the time which we 
are considering, there were in this country more than one 
hundred thousand Chinamen, most of them in California. 
As their mode of living was very inexpensive, they could 
afford to work for lower wages than other laborers. It was 
held that this cheap labor was a positive injury to the coun- 
try. Hence the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed, forbidding 
the importation of any more Chinese laborers into this 
country. 

453. The Election of 1888. — The campaign of this year 
turned principally on the tariff question. The people were 
called upon to decide between the Republicans, who favored 
the continuance of high protective duties on importations, 
and the Democrats, who demanded a reduction of the tariff. 
President Cleveland was a candidate for reelection, with 
Allen G. Thurman of Ohio for Vice-President. The Repub- 
licans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, and Levi 
1'. .Morton of New York. Harrison and Morton had two 
hundred and thirty-three votes against one hundred and 
sixty-eight for Cleveland and Thurman. 

SUMMARY 

During this administration civil service reform was ad- 
vanced; presidential succession was provided for; a new system 
of counting the electoral votes was inaugurated; uniform inter- 
state railroad rates were established; and Chinese laborers were 
excluded. 



HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1889-1893) 



339 



CHAPTER XXXVI 



HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1889-1893) 



454. Oklahoma. — The condition of affairs in the Indian 
Territory more and more attracted the attention of the 
national government. In 1889, soon after President Harri- 
son took his seat, the government bought of the Creek and 
Seminole Indians a tract of about forty thousand square 
miles of land in the western sec- 
tion of the territory, thereafter 
called Oklahoma. This was 
opened to white settlers, by the 
proclamation of the President, 
on the 22d of April, and a flood 
of claim-seekers rushed in and 
chose their locations, so that be- 
fore night towns of tents and 
rough board shanties had sprung 
up as by magic. The principal 
town, Guthrie, afterwards made 
the capital, in less than six months had a population of four 
thousand, with banks, churches, schools, daily newspapers, 
and lines of street cars. In 1890 the population of the ter- 
ritory had grown to over sixty thousand, and in 1900 to four 
hundred thousand. 

455. New States Admitted. — In 1889 four new states, 
North and South Dakota, Montana, and Washington, were 
admitted to the Union, and the next year two more, Idaho 
and Wyoming, were added. Six years later Utah was made a 
state, and ever since the number of states has been forty-five. 

456. Pan-American Congress. — From the early days of 
our republic, sympathy between us and the people and 





f * 




fc^ ^ 


m 


w 



Benjamin Harrison. 



340 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

governments of Central and South America had been grow- 
ing. This sympathy was voiced long ago in the Monroe 
Doctrine. In the winter of 1889-1890 a convention was 
held in Washington called the Pan-American Congress. 
To this body, assembled by the invitation of the United 
States, came representatives from seventeen countries. The 
object of the conference was to promote a stronger friendship 
between the different nations of the American continent, and 
to increase the commerce between them. While no legis- 
lation grew directly out of it, yet the members of the congress 
recommended that in the future all disputes between the 
different governments be settled by arbitration rather than 
by a resort to arms. Since the meeting of this congress, the 
sentiment in favor of arbitration has had a wonderfully 
rapid growth, both in America and in Europe. The con- 
gress adjourned April 19, 1890, and after adjournment the 
members spent some weeks in visiting the larger cities of 
the United States. 

457. International Copyright. — In 1891 Congress passed 
an act providing for international copyright. By this act 
the benefits of copyright in our country were extended to all 
foreign authors living in countries which permitted copy- 
right to American books. 

458. Australian Ballot. — Dissatisfaction with the exist- 
ing modes of election brought about an important change in 
the matter of voting. One state after another tried the Aus- 
tralian ballot, which proved to be so successful that before 
the presidential election in 1892 thirty-seven of the forty- 
four states had adopted it. By this system complete se- 
crecy of voting is made possible, and opportunities for bribery 
and intimidation of voters are greatly diminished. At the 
present time this method of voting is in nearly universal 
use in our country. 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 341 

459. Other Public Questions. — Congress legislated at 
different times on the question of gold and silver coin for 
money, on the tariff, and on reciprocity. Moreover, we had 
some difficulties to settle with foreign nations, notably those 
with Italy and with Chile. 

460. The Election of 1892. — The campaign of 1892 was 
in most respects similar to that of 1888. President Harri- 
son was • nominated by the Republicans for reelection, and 
Whitelaw Reid of New York, for Vice-President. Ex-Presi- 
dent Cleveland and Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois were 
nominated by the Democrats. A new party, called the 
People's party, chose for its candidates James B. Weaver of 
Iowa, and James G. Field of Virginia. Cleveland and Steven- 
son were elected. They had two hundred and seventy-seven 
electoral votes, Harrison had one hundred and forty-five, 
and Weaver twenty-two. For the first time since 1861 the 
Democrats controlled all branches of the national govern- 
ment. 

SUMMARY 

The opening of Oklahoma to settlers was followed by a rush 
of claim-seekers; arbitration was advanced by the Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress; authors were aided by the passage of an inter- 
national copyright law; and fairer elections were furthered by 
the adoption of the Australian ballot. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 

461. The Bering Sea Case. — The catching of fur seals 
in the sea and off the islands of Alaska had become a profit- 
able business. But the wholesale slaughter of seals by the 



342 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Canadians in what was termed the Bering Sea threatened 
to exterminate them. The United States claimed that by 
the privileges acquired from Russia in the purchase of Alaska 
she had the right to consider Bering Sea as a "closed sea," and 
that it was properly under her control, so far as the seal 
fisheries were concerned. Foreign vessels catching seals 
were seized by armed ships sent out by our government and 
the skins found on them were confiscated. Most of the cap- 
tured vessels were flying the British flag. The British gov- 
ernment remonstrated, and denied that the United States 
had any jurisdiction, claiming that the sea was an open sea, 
and that our government must pay damages. 

After much delay and various diplomatic moves, a treaty 
was concluded between the two countries which provided 
that the dispute should be settled by arbitration. This was 
Triumph another triumph for the principle of arbitration, 
for Arbi- now rapidly gaining in public estimation. The 
tration. commission met in Paris in March, 1893, and in 
August following rendered its decision, which was unfavor- 
able to the United States. Our government w T as obliged 
to pay to the Canadian ship-owners nearly half a million 
dollars. 

462. Labor Troubles. — For several years workmen in 
various industries had been combining for the protection 
of their common rights, and various strikes and lockouts 
resulted. Occasionally mobs formed, and becoming law- 
less did serious injury to property and life. In 1886 the 
anarchist riots had occurred in Chicago. In 1892 came the 
labor troubles at Homestead, Pennsylvania; in 1894 there 
were strikes among the Pullman and railroad workers; even 
so recently as 1902 the great coal strike in Pennsylvania 
occurred. 

463. World's Columbian Exposition. — The four hun- 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 343 

dredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus 
was fittingly celebrated by a naval parade of all nations in 
the harbor of New York, October 12, 1892, and by a World's 
Fair held in Chicago. This fair, on the 21st of October, 
dedicated its grounds and buildings for a great exhibit of the 
industries of all the nations, and was formally opened on the 




The Grounds of the Columbian Exposition. 



first day of May, 1903, with an address by President Cleveland. 
It continued for six months. In the number and excellence 
of the industries it exhibited, the beauty of its buildings and 
grounds, and in the multitude of its visitors, this exposition 
was far superior to that of 1876, and to all previous World's 
Fairs. The total admissions to the fair grounds numbered 
nearly thirty millions. 

464. Financial Difficulties. — These four years were a 



344 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

period of severe business depression in our country. In 1893 
this depression amounted to a real panic. Manufactured 
goods of various sorts, cottons, woolens, and iron, could not be 
sold and must needs be piled up, waiting for a market. Busi- 
ness men could not borrow money and failures resulted. Great 
numbers of workmen were out of employment and they and 
their families suffered great hardships. The panic, however, 
was of short duration. Prosperity was soon restored. 

465. Hawaii. — A revolution against the Queen of the 
Hawaiian (ha-wi' yan) Islands occurred on the 14th of Janu- 
ary, 1893. Two days later a Committee of Safety appealed 
to the United States for protection. In response to this 
request, and to protect American interests, a small number 
of troops landed from a United States cruiser stationed at 
Honolulu. The next day, a provisional government was set 
up "until," as it was stated at the time, "terms of union 
with the United States of America should be negotiated 
and agreed upon." 

Following close upon these movements, a treaty providing 
for the annexation of these islands was negotiated and sent 
to the Senate February 15. It was not acted upon before 
President Harrison's term expired. President Cleveland with- 
drew the treaty, and began an investigation of the whole 
matter. We shall see later what was the outcome of all this. 

466. Venezuela. — For many years Great Britain and 
Venezuela had had a dispute over the boundaries of British 
Guiana in South America. Venezuela had many times 
asked to have the question settled by arbitration, but Great 
Britain had refused. President Cleveland, fearing that 
England intended to fix the boundary by means of an armed 
force, informed the British premier that the Monroe Doctrine 
would not permit England to increase her territory on the 
American continent in this manner. He then issued a 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 345 

message to Congress asking authority to appoint an arbitra- 
tion commission which should run the boundary. For a 
time it was feared that a war with England would follow, 
but England receded from her position, an arbitration 
commission was appointed, and the boundaries were finally 
fixed in accordance with the claims of Great Britain. 

467. The Election of 1896. — In this sharply contested 
election, the currency question was the prominent issue. The 
Democrats declared for the "free and unlimited coinage of 
silver" at the rate of sixteen to one, 1 and nominated for Presi- 
dent William J. Byran of Nebraska, and for Vice-President 
Arthur Sewall of Maine. The platform of the Republican 
party advocated a protective tariff and international bi- 
metallism. This party nominated for President William 
McKinley of Ohio, and for Vice-President Garrett A. Hobart 
of New Jersey. The Populists nominated for President Mr. 
Bryan, and for Vice-President Thomas E. Watson of Georgia. 
The "silver Republicans" ratified the Democratic ticket. A 
wing of the Democratic party, opposed to free silver, named 
General John M. Palmer of Illinois, and General Simon B. 
Buckner of Kentucky. The election resulted in two hundred 
and seventy-one votes for McKinley, and one hundred and 
seventy-six for Bryan. 

SUMMARY 

A dispute arose between the United States and Great Britain ' 
in regard to the seal fisheries in Bering Sea, and was settled 

1 By sixteen to one was meant that in coining money in the United 
States, sixteen ounces of silver would be equal to one ounce of gold, or 
that a silver dollar would be sixteen times as heavy as a gold dollar. 
The Republicans believed that since the principal European nations had 
gold only as the fixed standard for money, it would be unwise for the 
United States to have both gold and silver, unless all nations agreed to 
adopt bimetallism. 



346 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

by arbitration. The country was disturbed by many strikes 
and riots and by a financial panic. The Columbian Expo- 
sition celebrated the discovery of America. The annexation 
of the Hawaiian Islands was proposed, but led to a difference 
of opinion in the United States and was postponed for further 
investigation. The presidential campaign was spirited, as the 
people were divided on the currency question. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 

468. Troubles in Cuba. — In early times Spain was one 
of the strong powers of Europe. About one hundred years 
ago she held a large portion of the American continent, which 
had been in her possession for two centuries. In 1S21 she 
lost the control of Mexico, and soon all her other possessions 
on this continent slipped away from her. In the West 
[ndies, as early as 182"), Spain retained only Cuba, Porto 
Rico, and a few small outlying islands. Cuba and Porto 
Rico might have been of great value, had Spain given them 
just, and liberal treatment. The soil was very fertile, large 
areas were covered by dense forests of timber, and the mines 
were valuable. But the people were kept in poverty, while 
Spain profited by an exorbitant system of taxation. An 
intense hatred of everything Spanish soon possessed the 
minds of all the natives. In 1868 an insurrection broke 
out in Cuba, which lasted for ten years. After that, Spain 
broke her promises, and in 1895 another revolt followed. 
Spain sent over an army and a long war resulted. Captain- 
General Weyler issued what was known as his "reconcen- 
tration order." This was a command that all the people of 
each district should be collected at some place near the 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 347 

Spanish troops and be kept under guard. The object was 
to make it more difficult for the people to supply the Cuban 
army with food, and for that army to get information of 
the Spanish military movements. It was reported that 
more than three hundred thousand persons were thus 
herded together. Farmers and planters were driven from 
their homes and their industries, their houses were burned 
and their farms destroyed. The result was untold suffer- 




Spanish Suldieks Driving the Cubans into Camp 



ing. Crowded together, destitute of food and proper 
shelter, thousands of the Cubans died of hunger and 
sickness. 

469. The United States and Cuba. — American citizens 
had invested vast sums of money in sugar and other industries 
in Cuba, and our trade with the island had become very large. 
Owing to the war, and especially to General Weyler's method 
of conducting it, these industries were destroyed and out- 
trade with the island was ruined. 



348 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Spain recalled Weyler, sent General Blanco to succeed 
Spain re- him, and promised reforms. The Cubans, how- 
fuses Inde- ever, could not trust these promises and insisted 
pendence. on absolute independence. To this Spain would 
not consent. 

470. The Destruction of the Maine. — In February, 1898, 
the United States battleship Maine, lying in the harbor of 
Havana on a friendly visit, was blown up at night and more 
than two hundred and fifty men perished. A United States 
naval board of inquiry appointed by President McKinley re- 
ported that the ship was blown up by a mine placed under 
her by unknown persons. The Spanish government, how- 
ever, reported that the cause of the explosion was from 
within the vessel. The public feeling all over the United 
States was at fever heat against Spain. 

471. President McKinley's Message. — Members of both 
houses of Congress were urging warlike measures, and in 
April the President sent a message to Congress, in which he 
said: "It is plain the insurrection cannot be extinguished 
by present methods. In the name of humanity, in the name 
of civilization, in the behalf of endangered American interests, 
which give us the right and duty to speak and to act, the 
war in Cuba must stop." The message requested Congress 
to give him sufficient power to adopt such measures as would 
stop the war in Cuba. 

472. Congress Acts. — Congress acted at once, and on 
the 19th of April adopted the following resolutions: 

1. That the people of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent. 

2. That it is the duty of the United States to demand that 
Spain should give up Cuba and withdraw its forces from the 
island. 

3. That the President is directed and empowered to use 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 349 



all the forces of the United States and to call upon the militia 
to carry out these resolutions. 

4. That the United States disclaims any intention of con- 
trol over said island except for the pacification thereof, and 
asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to 
leave the government and the control of the island to its 
people. 

Spain immediately gave passports to our minister at 
War Madrid. This meant 

Declared. war . Hence, on April 
25, 1898, Congress formally de- 
clared war against Spain. 

473. Beginning of the War. 
— Congress at once authorized 
the borrowing of two hundred 
million dollars. As soon as the 
loan was advertised, more than 
seven times that sum was 
offered. The President gave 
orders to blockade the coast of 
Cuba and to put in defensive 
condition our whole sea line, 
from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico. 

474. Spain's Colonial Possessions. — Besides Cuba and 
Porto Rico, the principal colonial possession still belonging 
to Spain was the Philippine Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, 
east of China. These islands contained a mixed population 
of perhaps eight million inhabitants. The largest island was 
Luzon (loo-zon') and its principal city was Manila, where 
was stationed a large Spanish fleet. 

475. The War in the Pacific. — The United States Asiatic 
Squadron was lying off Hong Kong, China, under command 
of Commodore George Dewey. On receiving orders by 




William McKinley. 



350 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



cable to "capture or destroy the Spanish fleet," Dewey and 
his squadron at once steamed away for "Manila. Early 
(Hi Sunday morning, May 1, 1898, they entered Manila Bay. 
Annihila- There the Spanish fleet lay, protected by the guns 
tion of of the batteries at Cavite (ka-ve' ta), a few miles 
Spanish distant. Then occurred a most notable naval en- 
gagement. The cannonading was fierce and vig- 
orous, both from the fleets and from the forts. After two 




The W kecked Spanish Squadron at Cavite. 



hours of fighting Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships, 
rested his men, gave them breakfast, and studied the ques- 
tion of ammunition. He then steamed back, and the can- 
nonading which followed was even more terrific than before. 
Tn a single hour the return fire, from both the Spanish fleet 
and the forts, ceased. Every ship of the enemy was burned, 
sunk, or deserted. Their loss was reported four hundred 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 351 



The Spanish Asiatic 
Only six 




Admiral Dewey. 



killed and six hundred wounded. 
Squadron was annihilated. 

The Americans on their part had not lost a man. 
of their men were wounded 
and none of their vessels suf- 
fered serious injury. Dewey 
was made Rear Admiral and 
a sword was given him by 
Congress with a vote of 
thanks. The next year he 
was made Admiral. 

476. Cervera's Fleet. — 
Spain had another strong 
fleet, which was lying in the 
neighborhood of the Cape 
Verde Islands. Soon after 
the war commenced, this 
fleet, under the command of Admiral Cervera (thar-va' ra), 
left these islands. Its destination was uncertain, and natu- 
rally enough the people on our Atlantic coast feared that it 
might suddenly appear and bombard their cities. The news 
that Cervera's ships had been seen on the southern coast 
of Cuba, and that they had anchored in the harbor of San- 
tiago-de-Cuba, quieted all this alarm. The whole American 
nation, however, anxiously awaited the movements of our 
North Atlantic Squadron, under Rear Admiral Sampson and 
Commodore Schley (sli). 

The delay was not long. Sampson and Schley quickly 
went to meet Cervera. Arrived before Santiago, they at once 
proceeded to blockade the harbor and prepare for action. 

477. Lieutenant Hobson and the Merrimac. — The entrance 
to Santiago harbor is a narrow winding passage, protected 
on both sides by fortified hills. The Americans proposed 



352 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to "bottle up" the Spanish fleet so that it could not pos- 
sibly get out into the open sea. This was to be done by 
sinking a vessel in the narrowest part of the channel. The 
plan was devised by Naval Constructor Richmond P. Hob- 
son, and to him the task was intrusted. In the early morn- 
ing Lieutenant Hobson with six brave volunteers, under a 
heavy fire, navigated the huge collier Merrimac through the 
channel. A shot from one of the forts carried away her 
rudder, so that she could not be moved to the exact spot 
that would blockade the channel. She was sunk, however, 
and her crew were now defenseless in the water. They were 
picked up by a Spanish vessel and made prisoners of war. 
Admiral Cervera himself was on the launch which rescued 
them. He was so moved by their bravery that he at once 
notified Admiral Sampson of the safety of the men. In this 
message he said: "Daring like theirs makes the bitterest 
enemy proud that his fellowmen can be such heroes." 

Hobson and his companions remained prisoners-of-war for 
several weeks and were then exchanged. 

478. Cervera's Fleet Destroyed. — On the morning of 
July 3d, Admiral Cervera, in obedience to positive orders 
from Spain, made a hurried and bold attempt to leave the 
harbor and take his vessels out to sea. The American fleet 
at once gave chase and opened fire upon the Spanish 
vessels, one by one. Cervera believed that his boats were 
swifter than the American vessels and that he could outsail 
them and escape. Here he was deceived. In less than four 
hours every Spanish ship was destroyed and every member 
of the Spanish crews was either killed or captured. The 
American loss was one man killed and three wounded. 

Several years afterwards, in an address to young men, 
Admiral Sampson said that two questions regarding this 
destruction of the Spanish fleet were frequently asked him. 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 353 

One was how had it happened that his guns could hit the 
Spanish vessels every time, while so few of the Sampson's 
Spanish shots struck our ships at all. The Admiral Explana- 
explained that the reason was very simple : he had tlon - 
known that the Spanish crews had been practicing target 
firing while lying in the harbor of Santiago. They had been 
firing at the hull of an abandoned vessel, lying about a mile 
away. Sampson had, therefore, given orders to his fleet to 
get within half a mile of the enemy before firing. Thus it 
was easy to hit the Spaniards, but they, being used to 
a full mile distance, shot over our vessels. The other ques- 
tion was how could it happen that his shot would almost 
inevitably set the Spanish vessels on fire, while ours, even 
when hit, did not take fire. The Admiral showed that the 
reason for this was easy also : before the battle he had ordered 
all cabinet work, which could be set on fire, to be stripped 
off and thrown overboard. Hence the Spanish shot reached 
nothing combustible. The Spaniards, however, had not thus 
prepared their vessels, which, therefore, easily took fire. 

479. The Santiago Campaign. — Meanwhile hurried prepa- 
rations had been made to increase the regular army and to 
equip it for active service. The President had issued a call 
for one hundred and twenty-five thousand volunteers and 
later for seventy-five thousand more. Men from every walk 
in life, from the South as well as from the North, had im- 
mediately responded, and great camps had been formed, 
where these recruits were drilled by army officers. The 
first campaign was against Santiago-de-Cuba. Fifteen thou- 
sand troops, mostly regulars, under the command of General 
Shafter, landed on the southern coast of Cuba. They then 
marched, sometimes under the hot tropical sun, sometimes 
in the pouring rain, over a rough, hilly country towards 
Santiago. On July 1st, El Caney was captured by Generals 



354 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Lawton and Chaffee, and on the same day San Juan hill was 
taken by Colonel Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders." The 
loss was heavy, for at all times the Americans were exposed to 
the guns of hidden Spanish soldiers. General Shafter was then 
able to place his lines about the city, which finally surrendered 

on the 17th of July. 

480. Porto Rico 
Campaign. — General 
Miles now landed a 
strong force on the 
southern side of Porto 
Rico, where he was not 
expected, and with lit- 
tle opposition made a 
triumphant march 
through the island. 
The Spanish forces re- 
treated before him, and 
the inhabitants wel- 
comed our troops. r I he 
Americans took pos- 
session of the island. 

481. Manila Sur- 
r enders. — After the 
destruction of the 
Spanish Asiatic Meet 
at Manila, Admiral 

American Gunners in the Sea-Fight. Dewey continued to 
blockade the harbor, but he had not a sufficient land force to 
warrant an attack upon the city. Finally troops arrived from 
San Francisco, and Admiral Dewey and Major-General Mer- 
ritt together decided to make the attack. They were suc- 
cessful and Manila surrendered on the 13th of August. 




McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 355 




General Miles. 
General Shafter. 



Admiral Sampson. 
Admiral Schley. 



482. The Treaty of Peace. — Active hostilities had been 
carried on a little over three months when Spain sued for 
peace. Our Congress had declared war on the 22d of April, 



356 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1898, and on the 26th of July the French ambassador at 
Washington asked, in behalf of Spain, on what terms the 
United States would make peace. Two weeks later Spain 
signified her willingness to agree to our terms. Accordingly 
orders were given to cease hostilities. Before these reached 
the Philippines, however, the city of Manila had fallen. 

In October, Peace Commissioners met at Paris, and on the 
10th of December the treaty of peace was signed. It em- 
bodied the following terms: 

1. Spain to give up all claims upon Cuba. 

2. Spain to cede to the United States Porto Rico, all her 
other small islands in the West Indies, and the island Guam 
in the Pacific Ocean. 

3. Spain to cede to the United States also the entire group 
of islands east of the China Sea, called the Philippine Islands; 
and the United States to pay Spain twenty million dollars. 
The treaty did not specify for what this sum was to be paid, 
but the inference seemed to be that it was to reimburse Spain 
for her public works in the Philippines, which were by the 
treaty turned over to the United States. 

483. The Treaty Ratified. — The President sent the treaty 
to the Senate on the 4th of January, 1899, and that body 
ratified it by a vote of fifty-seven in favor, just one vote more 
than the required two-thirds majority. 

484. Some Reflections Concerning the War. — The war 
was a remarkably short one. From beginning to end the 
United States forces were successful on land and sea. The 
direct cost of army and navy to our government was over 
one hundred million dollars. The other departments of gov- 
ernment had their expenditures greatly increased. The loss 
of life on our side from first to last was very small. We 
lost no flag, gun, or vessel, and no prisoners were taken except 
Lieutenant Hobson and his companions. The entire num- 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 357 

ber of men enlisted in our army was nearly three hundred 
thousand. The losses in battle numbered about four hun- 
dred, and from disease nearly three thousand. The Red 
Cross Society did a noble work in caring for the wounded, 
the sick, and the suffering. 

Our decided and rapid success in the war clearly showed 
to the nations of Europe that the United States was a power 
to be respected, indeed one of the great world powers. 

485. The Philippine Insurrection. — A portion of the 
people of the Philippine Islands were at war with the Spanish 
authorities before we obtained possession. Their leader 
and military commander was General Emilio Aguinaldo 
(a-ge-nal' do) . The insurrection against Spain, with Aguinaldo 
at its head, began in 1896. Spain, by the payment of a 
large sum of money, procured Aguinaldo's exile from the 
islands. He went to Hong Kong. Two years later he re- 
turned to Manila for the purpose, it was said, of aiding the 
United States in the war against Spain. He soon raised 
another insurrection, and later organized a provisional gov- 
ernment, of which he was made president. The contest was 
mainly confined to the island of Luzon. A sort of guerrilla 
warfare continued for several years, until military forces of 
the United States had reduced his army to a mere body- 
guard, and in March, 1901, he was captured and brought 
to Manila. Ten days later he took the oath of allegiance to 
the United States. 

Under the control of the United States the industries of 
these islands have been rapidly developed and Deve i 
the condition of the inhabitants has improved, ment 
Schools have been established by the government, of the 
and many reforms undertaken. The military rule s an s ' 
gave way to a civil government in 1901, and the first gover- 
nor was William H. Taft. Four departments of government 



:;:,s 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



have been organized, the Department of the Interior, of 
Commerce and Police, of Justice and Finance, and of Public 
Instruction. 

486. The Hawaiian Islands. — These islands, formerly 
called the Sandwich Islands, are situated in the middle of 
the Pacific Ocean, in about twenty degrees of north lati- 
tude. They were discovered by Captain Cook, an English 
navigator, in 1778. The government there was at first a 




Raising the United States Flag at Honolulu, 1898. 

monarchy. In 1893, however, the revolution occurred of 
which mention has already been made, a republican govern- 
ment was established, and Sanford B. Dole, the son of an 
American missionary, was elected president. The islands 
had then, as we know, asked to be joined to the United 
States, but their request had not been granted. Again they 
applied to be admitted to our republic, and in July, 1898, 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 359 

were formally annexed to the United States by an Act of 
Congress. Later they were organized with a regular terri- 
torial government as the Territory of Hawaii (ha-wi' e), 
which has a delegate upon the floor of the House of Repre- 
sentatives. 

A submarine cable was laid in 1903, from San Francisco 
across the Pacific, with offices in Honolulu, Guam, Submarine 
and the Philippine Islands. Cable. 

487. Guam and Other Island Possessions. — Guam is the 
largest and the most southern of the Ladrone Islands in the 
Pacific Ocean. It is some thirty-four miles long and one hun- 
dred miles in circumference, and is surrounded by coral reefs. 
The island has a population of about ten thousand. Our 
country took formal possession of it in February, 1899. 

Wake Island is a small island midway between Hawaii 
and Hong Kong. Our flag was raised there in January, 1899. 

Tutuila (too' too-f la) became one of the possessions of the 
United States in 1899, in accordance with the treaty of Ber- 
lin. By this treaty Great Britain, Germany, and the United 
States agreed that the Samoan Islands should be divided 
between Germany and the United States, the latter taking 
Tutuila and several adjacent small islands, and Germany 
taking the rest of the group. This treaty was ratified by 
the Senate in January, 1900. Tutuila is valuable to our 
country both because it serves as a coaling station and also 
because it has a well-sheltered harbor called Pago-Pago, 
the finest harbor in the South Pacific Ocean. The island 
covers fifty-four square miles and has about six thousand 
inhabitants. It lies in the latitude of thirteen to fifteen de- 
grees south. 

488. Our Possessions in the Torrid Zone. — Thus it may 
be seen that since the Spanish War we have acquired large 
possessions within the tropics. Formerly the territory of 



360 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the United States was entirely confined to the north tem- 
perate zone. To-day we have Porto Rico, the Philippines, 
Hawaii, Guam, Wake Island, and Tutuila, with several 
smaller islands, all lying within about twenty degrees of the 
equator. Hitherto all tropical fruits and other productions 
had to be imported from foreign countries. Now we can 
have them all from our own possessions. 

489. The Status of Cuba. — At the beginning of the Span- 
ish War our government stated distinctly that we had no 
intention of annexing Cuba, but only of aiding her to secure 
her independence. After the war closed, we continued our 
military occupation of the island, but only to preserve order 
till the people could establish a government of their own. 
In February, 1901, the Cubans organized a republic patterned 
largely after our own. They drew up a constitution, which 
provided for a president elected for four years by the people, 
who might be reelected once, and once only. This consti- 
tution provided also for a Congress of two houses, like ours, and 
a similar judiciary. As soon as this constitution had been 
adopted and officials elected under it, the island was turned 
over to the Cubans, and the new government went into effect 
in May, 1902. 

490. The Hague Conference. — In May, 1899, delegates 
from twenty-six nations met at the Hague for a Peace Confer- 
ence. This movement was the result of a suggestion of 
Nicholas II, the Czar of Russia. Its object was to discuss 
the possibility of settling international disputes without 
resorting to war. One hundred delegates were present. 
The conference lasted about ten weeks. 

It was decided to recommend a permanent international 
Court of Arbitration, to which disputes between nations 
which could not be settled by ordinary diplomacy might 
be referred, and thus avoid the expensive and destructive 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 361 

arbitrament of war. This conference voted that "the mili- 
tary burdens which now weigh so heavily upon the world" 
ought to be lightened. 

491. A Permanent Court of Arbitration. — The tribunal 
thus recommended has been established and agreed to by 
various nations of Europe and America. It is composed of 
persons eminent for their knowledge of international law, 
and chosen by the parties concerned from a permanent list 
of arbitrators nominated by the several nations. Upon 
occasion a special court may be organized in the following 
way: "Each party to the controversy chooses two arbitrators, 
either from the list of permanent members, or from persons 
who are not members, and these choose an umpire." A per- 
manent council is always on hand at the Hague. 

492. Cases Already Before the Court. — The first case 
settled by this court was a controversy between the United 
States and Mexico in regard to the Pius Fund Claims, so 
called. Several other cases have already been determined 
by this tribunal, and its permanence and success are to-day 
unquestioned. 

493. The Chinese Insurrection. — In the spring of 1900 
a wide-spread insurrection took place in China against 
foreigners and foreign influence. The fury of the mob was 
principally against Americans and Englishmen, and to some 
extent against the French, Germans, and Russians. Many 
were murdered without provocation. Troops from our 
country, from England, and several European countries, 
were hurried to Pekin to protect the foreigners there. When 
the rioters were put down and terms were discussed for the 
settlement of damages, our government proposed a policy 
quite different from that advocated by the European powers. 
There was danger that a part of the territory would be de- 
manded by the nations whose subjects had suffered. But 



362 



ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



the United States firmly insisted that the territory of China 
should remain intact; that China must pay a suitable indem- 
nity for property destroyed and lives lost, and must punish 
the instigators of the insurrection, but that she should lose 
no territory. This policy prevailed, and finally the whole 
affair was settled in accordance with the wishes of our govern- 
ment. An understanding had already been reached with 
those nations which had obtained territory in China that all 

ports should be opened to the 
trade of all nations. This ar- 
rangement, called the "open 
door," was a brilliant diplo- 
matic achievement. It was the 
work of John Hay, our secretary 
of state, whose course through- 
out all this difficulty with China 
reflected great credit upon our 
country. 

494. The Election of 1900. 
The two most important ques- 
tions which divided the Ameri- 
can people in this campaign, 
were the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver at the rate 
of sixteen to one, and what was termed "anti-imperial- 
ism." The silver question was the same that divided the 
country four years before. The other, and the more impor- 
tant problem, had grown out of the treaty with Spain at the 
close of the war. It will be remembered that by that treaty 
Spain ceded to us the island of Porto Rico and the entire 
group of the Philippines. We had also annexed the Hawaiian 
Islands. 
The acquisition of an important island in the Atlantic 




John Hay. 



McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 363 

and groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean occasioned a 
decided change in our national affairs. Were these islands 
to become states in our Union? Or were they, by the adop- 
tion of a colonial system, to become dependencies? Would the 
latter plan, called by some "imperialism," be con- imperial- 
sistent with our ideas of republican institutions? ism- 
Here arose a difference of political views. Many thought 
that "imperialism abroad would lead quickly and inevitably 
to despotism at home." 

The Democrats in their platform advocated "free silver" 1 
and "anti-imperialism," and nominated for President Wil- 
liam J. Bryan of Nebraska, and for Vice-President Adlai E. 
Stevenson of Illinois. 

The Republicans advocated the gold standard, and ap- 
proved of the new system of island dependencies. They 
nominated for President William McKinley of Ohio, and 
for Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt of New York. Mc- 
Kinley had already served four years and had made himself 
a favorite in all parts of the country. Theodore Roosevelt 
was brilliant and popular. He had already had a broad and 
varied experience. He was a trained literary man, a volu- 
minous writer, had served in the New York legislature, 
had been national civil service commissioner, president of 
the New York police board, assistant secretary of the navy 
in McKinley's Cabinet, was colonel of the cavalry regiment 
of "Rough Riders" in the Spanish War, and at the time of 
this election was serving his second year as governor of the 
state of New York. 

The People's party, or Populists, nominated William J. 
Bryan for President, and Charles A. Towne for Vice-President. 

1 By " free silver " is meant the free coinage of silver; that is, when 
individuals carry silver bullion to the mint, the government must make 
it into coin without expense to the owner. 



364 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The election was a decisive one. The electoral vote was 
two hundred and ninety-two for McKinley, and one hun- 
dred and fifty-five for Bryan. The total popular vote gave 
McKinley a plurality of about eight hundred and fifty 
thousand. This vote of the people determined the course 
of the United States in regard to the colonial policy. 

SUMMARY 

The sufferings of the Cubans in their struggles for indepen- 
dence had long enlisted the sympathies of the people of the 
United States, but no action was taken until after the destruc- 
tion of the Maine. Then war was declared against Spain. 
The conflict was sharp but decisive, and resulted in the destruc- 
tion of two Spanish fleets, the capture of Manila, the surrender 
of Santiago, and the occupation of Porto Rico. By the treaty 
of peace, Spain ceded to the United States all her American 
possessions, and the Philippines and other islands in the Pacific 
Ocean. Our territory was further enlarged by the annexation 
of Hawaii and Tutuila. 

An arbitration conference at the Hague resulted in the for- 
mation of a permanent International Court of Arbitration, 
which has already settled important international disputes. 

The policy of the United States in the Chinese insurrection 
against foreigners widened our influence with Asiatic as well 
as European countries. 

«€- 

CHAPTER XXXIX 

McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1901-1905) 

495. The Census of 1900. — The twelfth census was 
taken this centennial year. It reported the population of 
the United States as 76,304,799, being an increase of more 
than twenty per cent over the number ten years before. 
It showed that the center of population had moved west- 



McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 365 

ward fourteen miles, and southward about two and a half 
miles. The central point is now near Columbus, Indiana. 

The United States now takes its place among the nations 
of the world as the richest, most prosperous, and most rapidly 
progressive of them all. It has the broadest and America » s 
most varied industries. No other country has place 
made such a rapid advance in so short a time, among the 
In intelligence, in enterprise, in inventions, in a lons * 
the comforts and luxuries of life, no nation excels us. But 
we have great responsibilities before us and difficult prob- 
lems to be solved. The outcome is uncertain and rests 
with coming generations. A century and a quarter is but a 
short time to determine whether a nation is to have perma- 
nent success. Yet certainly we may look toward the future 
with high hope and joyful expectation. 

496. The Pan-American Exposition. — This exposition 
was officially opened at Buffalo, New York, on the 20th of 
May, 1901. It was designed to bring more closely together 
the various nations of America, by showing their progress 
in manufactures, the arts, and various industries. America 
had held many such exhibitions, and this was in many re- 
spects quite the equal of them all. 

In September President McKinley attended the exposi- 
tion, where he made an elaborate address, speak- The 
ing in favor of liberal trade relations with other President's 
countries, and above all expressing the hope that Speech- 
peace would be maintained between all nations of the earth. 

497. The President Assassinated. — The very next day after 
his delivery of this great speech, the President was shot by an 
anarchist, and died, a week later, sincerely mourned by his own 
people and by all nations of the world. On the day of the 
funeral, services were held in almost every village of this 
broad land and in nearly all of the large cities of the world. 



366 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

498. President Roosevelt. — The Vice-President was quietly 
sworn into office, at Buffalo. Thus, for the fifth time in the 
history of our country, by the death of the President, and for 
the third time by the assassination of the President, the Vice- 
President became the chief executive officer of the nation. 
President Roosevelt pledged himself " to continue abso- 
lutely unbroken the policy of President McKinley, for the 
peace, prosperity, and honor of the country," and invited 
each and every member of the late President's Cabinet to 
remain. By this course he at once won the confidence of 
the people, and no financial disturbance followed his acces- 
sion to office. 

499. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. — In the year 1850 
our government had made a treaty with Great Britain called 
the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which "guaranteed the strict 
neutrality of any interoceanic canal that might be built 
across the American Isthmus." This treaty agreed that 
"neither power was ever to obtain or maintain for itself an 
exclusive control over said ship-canal, or to occupy, or fortify, 
or colonize, or assume, or exercise, any dominion over Nica- 
ragua ... or any part of . . . Central America." 

This treaty was annulled and superseded by the Hay- 
Pauncefote Treaty, of December, 1901. The new treaty 
provided that the canal, when built, should be controlled by 
the United States, but that it should be opened to "vessels 
of commerce and of war of all nations on terms of entire 
equality." 

Thus the way was opened for our government to under- 
take the building of a water route between the Pacific and 
the Atlantic oceans. At first the Nicaragua route was 
favored, but afterwards authority was granted by Congress 
to buy the franchise of the French Panama Canal Com- 
pany for forty million dollars. A treaty was made with 



McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 367 

Colombia, by which she was to cede to us all rights to the 
canal, and our government was to pay to her ten million 
dollars and an annuity of two hundred and fifty thousand 
dollars, beginning nine years after the ratification of the treaty. 
The Colombian Congress refused to ratify the Treaty 
treaty. At that Panama rebelled and set up an with 
independent republican government. The Repub- Panam a- 
lie of Panama was recognized by our government, and a 




Used by courtesy of T. C. Muller. 

At Work on the Panama Canal. 

treaty was made with it, by which we obtained the "use, occu- 
pation, and control of the zone of land, and land under water, 
for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation, 
and protection of said canal of the width of ten miles." We 
agreed to pay to Panama the sum of ten million dollars. 
This treaty was ratified by our Senate February 23, 1904. 
The building of the canal is now in the hands of a 



368 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

commission of seven men, appointed by the President. The 
Building forty million dollars has been paid to the Panama 
the Canal. Canal Company, and the ten million dollars paid 
to the Republic of Panama. This important ship-canal will 
prove of immense advantage, not only to our country but 
to the commercial world. 




Used by courtesy of T. C. Muller. 

CULEBRA, THE BlGGEST CUT ON THE CANAL. 

500. Tendencies toward International Peace. — The gen- 
eral trend of public sentiment among civilized nations is, 
each year, stronger toward peaceful means of settling inter- 
national difficulties. Many treaties have been made by 
which the nations concerned have agreed to refer to the 
Hague court such questions as they may be unable to deter- 
mine by the ordinary course of diplomatic procedure. At 
the present time there is a strong sentiment among many 
nations in favor of a regular, international advisory Con- 



McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 369 



gress, which may help adjust important questions of inter- 
national law and propose needed legislation to the nations. 

501. International Courtesies. — A friendlier spirit than 
has ever before been known now pre- 
vails among nations. The United 
States has had proof of this spirit, as 
shown in the various courtesies which 
she has received from foreign nations. 
In 1886 the Republic of France pre- 
sented to the United States a bronze 
statue called "Liberty Enlightening 
the World." It stands on Liberty 
Island, formerly called Bedloe's 
Island, in New York Harbor. It is 
more than one hundred and fifty feet 
in height and stands on a pedestal of 
granite, which is also more than one 
hundred and fifty feet high. In 1902 
Prince Henry, of Prussia, visited the 
United States and went as far west as 
St. Louis. He received everywhere a 
most cordial welcome from the people. 
To commemorate this visit, Emperor William, in 1904, pre- 
sented to the United States a fine bronze statue of Frederick 
the Great, who was friendly to the colonies during the Revo- 
lution. This beautiful statue has been placed in a conspicu- 
ous position in the city of Washington. Another French 
gift, a statue of Rochambeau (ro-shan-bo'), who commanded 
the French troops in our Revolution, was unveiled in Wash- 
ington in May, 1904. 

502. Election of 1904. — We have already noted that 
Theodore Roosevelt was the fifth Vice-President called to 
the presidential chair by the death of the President. In 




The Statue of Liberty. 



370 ESS KNTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

no one of the four preceding cases was the accidental Presi- 
dent elected for another term. The present case, however, 
was an exception to this rule. The Republican party nomi- 
nated Theodore Roosevelt for President, and Charles W. 
Fairbanks of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Democratic 
I tarty named Alton B. Parker of New York, and Henry G. 
Davis of West Virginia. Roosevelt received three hundred 
and thirty-six electoral votes and Parker one hundred and 
forty. The popular vote for Roosevelt was over seven mil- 
lion six hundred thousand, and the vote for Parker was a 
little over five million. It is worthy of note that in the 
forty-five states more than thirteen and one half million 
votes were cast. 

SUMMARY 

President McKinley was assassinated while attending the 
Pan-American Exposition. He was succeeded by the Vice- 
President, Theodore Roosevelt, who continued his policy and 
won the confidence of the nation. 

By the adoption of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, the United 
States was free to build a canal connecting the Atlantic with 
the Pacific. It was decided to build it across the Isthmus of 
Panama, and a treaty was made by which the United States 
came into possession of the strip of land required for its con- 
struction. 



CHAPTER XL 

ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1905) 

503. The Inauguration. — On the 4th of March, 1905, 
Theodore Roosevelt was inaugurated President, and Charles 
W. Fairbanks Vice-President. The ceremonies connected 
with this inauguration were imposing; the procession from 
the White House to the Capitol was unusually long and 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1905 -) 



371 



brilliant; the concourse of citizens gathered near the east 
front of the Capitol to witness the President taking the oath 
of office and to listen to his inaugural address was very great ; 
the address was dignified and 
stately; it did not discuss the 
current questions of the day. 

504. Proposed Arbitration 
Treaties. — Treaties with several 
of the leading nations of Europe 
had been framed by the State 
Department. By these treaties 
it was agreed to submit ques- 
tions in dispute to arbitration ; 
in other words, to the Hague 
court. These treaties were sent 
to the Senate in March, 1905, 
for confirmation, but the Senate 
made some radical amendments 
which the President was un- 
willing to recommend to the several governments concerned. 
Hence they were not ratified. 

505. Santo Domingo. — Serious troubles existed in the 
little republic of Santo Domingo and the government became 
deeply involved in debt. Its creditors were citizens of the 
United States and subjects of various European governments. 
To protect our citizens and to prevent foreign nations from 
interfering contrary to the Monroe Doctrine, a treaty was 
made between the Santo Domingan government and the 
United States, by which it was agreed that we should take 
charge of their custom houses, collect the revenue, and hold 
the same to be paid out, a part to sustain the government of 
the little republic and the rest to the foreign creditors whoso 
claims could be proved. This treaty went to the Senate for 




Theodore Roosevelt. 



372 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

ratification, but that body, disagreeing with the President, 
adjourned without taking action. 

506. The Treaty of Portsmouth. — After the Chinese in- 
surrection (§493) had been put down and the country had 
become quiet, all the foreign nations that had sent troops 
to China to protect their citizens withdrew their forces, 
according to agreement, except Russia. Japan feared that 
Russia intended to hold permanently the Chinese province 
of Manchuria. As this would seriously interfere with her 
commerce and development and her influence in China, 
Japan sent a protest to the Czar asking that the Russian 
troops be removed. The Czar refused to heed this request 
and therefore Japan declared war against Russia in February, 
1904. 

The world is so closely bound together by treaties and 
common interests that whatever disturbs one country dis- 
turbs all. For a time it was feared that all the great European 
nations would become involved in the conflict. That the 
most terrible war of all time did not follow was due to the 
wisdom of the great diplomats, and as much, at least, to 
John Hay, our secretary of state, as to any other. The 
United States, through the efforts of President Roosevelt, 
was also instrumental in bringing the Russian- Japanese war 
to a close. In the summer of 1905, envoys from Russia 
and Japan met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Terms of 
peace were drawn up, agreed upon, and finally ratified by 
the governments of the two nations. 

SUMMARY 

Disagreements between the President and the Senate pre- 
vented the ratification of several arbitration treaties with 
foreign nations and a treaty with Santo Domingo. 



BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 373 

CHAPTER XLI 

THE UNITED STATES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 
TWENTIETH CENTURY. 

507. Extent of Territory. — A century ago the United 
States was wholly east of the Mississippi River. Now it 
extends from ocean to ocean and from near the equator 
practically to the north pole. While the greater part of 
this territory lies in the north temperate zone, yet the 
United States possesses a number of islands in the torrid 
zone, which produce every variety of tropical fruits. 

508. Growth in a Century. — One hundred years ago the 
population of the United States was between five and six 
millions. Now it is over seventy-six millions. These figures 
show an increase of over fourteen hundred per cent. 

The area in 1800 was about eight hundred thousand square 
miles. The entire territory in 1900 was more than three 
million seven hundred and fifty thousand square miles, a 
country greater than four times the original area, greater 
even than all the countries of Europe. 

Wealth has increased from one thousand million dollars 
to one hundred thousand million. Gold and silver coin in 
circulation has changed from sixteen million dollars to seven 
hundred and fifty millions. 

But the growth is most noticeable in the industries, pro- 
ductions and manufactures, exports and imports. At the 
beginning of the last century our annual imports were of the 
value of only a few million dollars, and now they are worth 
nearly a thousand millions. The exports were then less than 
fifty millions, and now they exceed thirteen hundred millions. 

We had no railroads till almost the middle of the nine- 
teenth century. Now the United States has two hundred 



374 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

thousand miles of railroad, about one half of the mileage of 
the whole world. 

Fifty years ago there were about two hundred post-offices, 
now there are eighty thousand. 

509. The Mississippi Valley. — The growth and develop- 
ment of the valley of the Mississippi, which extends from the 
Alleghenies to the Rocky Mountains, has been marvelous. 
Here are to-day twenty important states, ten on each side 
of the great river, besides parts of three more states and 
several territories, soon to become states. This great and 
fertile valley, of more than a million and a half square miles, 
has, at the beginning of this century, a population of about 
forty million, or more than one half of the number in the 
entire country. Here is our second city, Chicago, with a 
population of fully two million. Here are our largest wheat 
and corn fields, rich copper and iron mines, coal fields and 
oil wells. It is difficult to realize that little more than a 
century ago there were but few white families in all this 
region. 

510. The Pacific Slope. — Within the last century we 
have obtained on the Pacific slope new territory to the 
extent of a million and a half square miles, and have organ- 
ized there half a dozen states, which to-day have a popula- 
tion of about four million souls. This region has already 
become of immense value to our republic. Its gold and 
silver mines have been the source of great wealth. Within 
the last half century the mines of California have produced 
fully fifteen hundred million dollars worth of gold. Fruit, — 
especially oranges, lemons, and grapes, — wheat, lumber, 
and various other products are now exported from this 
section to all the states of the Union and to other countries. 
The foreign commerce has of late rapidly increased. 

511. Irrigation. — Within the memory of persons now 



BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 375 

living a large part of our western territory was marked on 
the maps as the "Great American Desert," and the land 
was supposed to be worthless, capable of producing nothing 
but cactus and sage brush. Quite recently it has been dis- 
covered that this land, when fertilized by water from the 
mountains, is capable of producing immense crops. It has 
therefore come to pass that many thousands of acres of sandy 
plains, hitherto worthless, have become fertile. The country 
around Salt Lake City, in southern California, in Colorado, 
and other sections has been reclaimed and made valuable by 
this simple process of irrigation. Many believe that the fer- 
tilizing of barren land by this method has but just begun. 

512. Immigration. — Civilization has repeatedly been 
promoted by migrations. The settlements along the Atlantic 
shores were made by immigration from Europe, chiefly 
England. The peopling of the Mississippi Valley was done 
by immigrants, mostly from the Atlantic slope. In a similar 
way the Pacific coast was settled. 

Indeed, without important additions from foreign shores, 
the United States to-day would have a sparse population. 
The average number of persons to the square mile in Eng- 
land is about six hundred and fifty. The average of Europe 
is more than one hundred to the square mile. That for the 
whole world is thirty to the square mile. The average for 
the United States proper is twenty-five, which is less than 
the average of the whole world. 

Within the last eighty years we have received from 
European countries large additions to our population. For- 
eigners have been attracted to these shores by the F ore i gn 
free institutions, the fertility of the soil, the varied Popula- 
manufacturing establishments, and the high wages. tlon - 
To-day the United States has nearly, if not fully, ten millions 
who were born in foreign countries, but our system of free 



376 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

schools i.s rapidly unifying all these diverse peoples. 1 The 
future of the great republic will be immensely enriched 
by this mixture of races and peoples growing up together 
under the same government and by the aid of the same 
institutions. 

513. Industries and Inventions. — In the broadening and 
the rapid increase of industries and in the amount and value 
of inventions the United States is far ahead of all other 
nations. • Our patent office has issued over a million and a 
quarter patents, of which more than thirty-five thousand 
have been granted in a single year. 

When we consider that the principal improvements in 
agriculture and the mechanic arts, in manufactures of all 
sorts, in methods of transportation and communication are 
due to patent devices, we may form some idea of the great 
utility of these inventions. No one can estimate fully the 
advantages that have been gained by the cotton gin, the 
steamboat, the railroad, by McCormick's reaper, by Howe's 
sewing-machine and its improvements, by Goodyear's vul- 
canized rubber, by Morse's telegraph and Bell's telephone; 
nor can one realize the time that has been saved by Hoe's 
cylinder press, by the typewriter, the type-setting machine, 
the bicycle, and the automobile. 

514. The Elevator. — The simple invention of the eleva- 
tor, called in England the lift, has done much to change the 
place and to improve the methods of doing business in 
our large towns. Formerly the first floor was the only 

1 For more than forty years this influx of foreign population has been 
largely increased by the Homestead Act, which was passed by Congress 
in 1862. The Act provided that any citizen could settle on one hun- 
dred and sixty acres of public land and after living on it five years 
could own it by paying one dollar and a quarter an acre. This Act has 
proved of decided advantage in hastening the settlement of the great 
West. 



BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 377 

desirable place for many kinds of business. Hence most 
business blocks were only three or four stories in height. 
Now, by means of the modern, improved elevator, buildings 
are erected, in the more compact parts of the great cities, 
from ten to twenty stories or even more in height, and for 
many kinds of business the upper stories are considered the 
best. This single and simple invention brings a larger share 
of the business within a small area in the denser portions of 
the cities. It has also decidedly raised the price of rents. 

515. Trolley Cars. — Within a few years past electric- 
ity has been successfully applied to the transaction of 
business in various directions. The use of the telephone 
is really something surprising. The Marconi wireless tele- 
graph is but just coming into use, but it has already 
convinced everybody of its reality and of its usefulness. 
The trolley car has made changes not dreamed of a few years 
ago. Rails have been laid and cars are running, not only 
along the streets of our large towns and cities, but from 
these centers out into the country in every direction. With 
cheap fares and stopping at frequent intervals, people who 
formerly lived in the cities can now live in the suburban 
sections, paying lower rents and enjoying country homes, 
instead of being confined in close quarters in the cities. 

516. Education. — In the department of education the 
recent advancement has been more rapid than ever before. 
Money has been given in large sums and by many donors to 
colleges and professional schools. Public libraries and 
schools for the blind and deaf have been endowed. Since 
the Civil War a complete system of public schools for both 
the white and the black races has been established in the 
Southern states. The education of the negro has received 
much attention in both public and private schools. A large 
percentage of the colored race in the South can now read 



378 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and write, and their schools are rapidly improving. The 
common schools throughout the country have been sys- 
tematized and developed. Daily and weekly papers are far 
better than they were and are more widely read. Magazines 
and books have fully kept pace with the spirit of modern 
improvement. 

Many public-spirited Americans in the past have given 
generously to educational institutions and to various enter- 
prises for the public good. Notable among such givers are 
George Peabody, John F. Slater, and Peter Cooper. Today, 
no less, are men and women giving largely of their wealth 
for the good of the nation. 

517. Labor and Capital. — Of late years the industries 
of the United States have been disturbed by conflicts between 
labor and capital. But the difficulties which have hereto- 
fore been experienced are gradually being adjusted, and we 
may hope before long to see a oneness of interests between 
the employers and the employees. American civilization 
will certainly show itself able to cope with all complicated 
questions, and to settle them on a higher and more just basis 
than has ever before prevailed. 

SUMMARY 

The United States has invaded the torrid zone and secured 
large island accessions. It has had a rapid growth in wealth 
and industries. It has half of the railroad mileage of the world. 
The growth of the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific slope has 
been rapid. Immigration has been important. Inventions 
have made great changes in our industries. Education has 
made rapid strides. Conflicts between labor and capital have 
increased. 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX A 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(The books marked by an asterisk (*) are especially adapted to the use of the younger 

readers.) 

Methods and Aids 

Barnes, M. S Studies in Historical Method, Heath. 

Bourne, H. E The Teaching of History and Civics in the Ele- 
mentary and Secondary Schools, Longmans. 

Channing and Hart Guide to the Study of American History, Ginn. 

Gordy and Twitchell A Pathfinder in American History, Lothrop, 

Lee & Shepard. 

Hall, G. Stanley Methods of Teaching and Study in History, 

Heath. 

Hinsdale, B. A How to Teach and Study History, with par- 
ticular reference to the History of the United 
States, Appleton. 
New England History Teachers' Association. 
A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, 
Heath. 

Sargent, J. F Reading for the Young, Library Bureau. 

The Study of History in Schools. Report of 
Committee of Seven to American Historical 
Association, Macmillan. 
World Almanac, New York. 

Original Documents and Sources 

Hart, A. B. . American History told by Contemporaries, 

4 vol., Macmillan. 

Hart, A. B Source Book of American History, Macmillan. 

Hart and Channing American History Leaflets, Lovett. 

McDonald, W Select Charters, 1616-1775, Macmillan. 

McDonald, W Select Documents, 1776-1861, Macmillan. 

McDonald, W Select Statutes, 1861-1898, Macmillan. 

Mead, E. D Old South Leaflets, Heath. 

Preston, H. W Documents Illustrative of American History, 

Putnam. 
3 



4 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Maps 

Hart, A. B Epoch Maps, illustrating American History, 

Longmans. 

Hart and Charming Outline Maps of the United States, Heath. 

MacCoun, T An Historical Geography of the United States, 

Silver, Burdett. 

General Histories 

Bancroft, G A History of the United States, 6 vol., Appleton. 

*Bonner, J Child's History of the United States, 2 vol., 

Harper. 
Brigham, A. P Geographic Influences in American History, 

Ginn. 
*Bryant and Gay Popular History of the United States, 5 vol., 

Scribner. 

Eggleston, E A History of Life in the United States, Appleton. 

Elson, H. W History of the United States of America, 

Macmillan. 
Frothingham, R The Rise of the Republic of the United States 

Little, Brown. 

Higginson, T. W Larger History of the United States, Harper. 

Hildreth, R A History of the United States, 6 vol., Harpt r. 

*Johonnot, J Stories of our Country, American Book Company. 

*Mo\vry, W. A. and A. M. American Heroes and Heroism, Silver, Burdett. 
*Mo\vry,W. A. and A. M. .American Inventions and Inventors, Silver, 

Burdett. 
*Mo\vry, W. A. and B. S. .American Pioneers, Silver, Burdett. 
Winsor, J Narrative and Critical History of America, 

8 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. 

THE COLONIAL PERIOD 
Histories 

Brooks, E. S The Story of the American Indian, Lothrop, 

Lee & Shepard. 

*Chandler, J. A. C Makers of Virginia History, Silver, Burdett. 

♦Coffin, C. C Old Times in the Colonies, Harper. 

Cooke, J. E Virginia (American Commonwealths), Houghton, 

Mifflin. 

Doyle, J. A English Colonies in America, 3 vol., Holt. 

*I)rake, S. A The Making of New England, Scribner. 

*Drake, S. A The Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies, 

Scribner. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 

Fisher, G. P The Colonial Era (American Historical Series) 

Scrihner. 
Fiske, J Old Virginia and her Neighbors, 2 vol., Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 
Fiske, J The Beginnings of New England, Houghton, 

Mifflin. 
Fiske, J The Discovery of America, 2 vol., Houghton. 

Mifflin. 
Fiske, J The Dutch and Quaker Colonies, 2 vol., 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

*Gilman, A Boston, Putnam. 

*Hale, E. E Stories of Discovery, Roberts. 

Higginson, T. W American Explorers, Longmans. 

Johnston, A. . . History of Connecticut (American Common- 
wealths), Houghton, Mifflin. 
Lodge, H. C A Short History of the English Colonies, 

Harper. 

Markham, R King Philip's War, Dodd, Mead. 

Parkman, F French and English Colonies in America, 12 

vol., Little, Brown. 
Parkman, F The Struggle for a Continent (edited by T. 

Edgar), Little, Brown. 
Roberts, E. H New York (American Commonwealths), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Roosevelt, T New York (Historic Towns), Longmans. 

*Scudder, H. E Boston Town, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Sloane, W. M The French War and the Revolution (American 

Historical Series), Scrihner. 
Thwaites, R. G The Colonies (Epochs of American History), 

Longmans. 
Weeden, W. B Economic and Social History of New England, 

2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. 

Biography 

*Higginson, T. W Book of American Explorers, Lothrop, Lee & 

Shepard. 
Janney, S. M The Life of Sir William Penn, Friends' Book 

Association. 
Sedgwick, H. D Samuel de Champlain (Riverside Biographies), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 
Sparks, J Library of American Biography, 25 vol., 

Little, Brown. 
Thwaites, R. G Father Marquette, Appleton. 



6 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

*To\vle. ( !. M Drake, the Sea King of Devon, Lothrop, Lee & 

Shepard. 

*To\vle, G. M Sir Walter Raleigh, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. 

Tuckerman, B Peter Stuyvesant (Makers of America) /><»/</, 

Mead. 
Twichell, J. II Life of Winthrop (Makers of America), Dodd, 

Mead. 
Walker, G. L Thomas Hooker (Makers of America), Dodd, 

Mead. 
Warner, C. D Captain John Smith (American Worthies), 

Putnam. 
Winsor, J Christopher Columbus, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Fiction 

♦Austin, J. G A Nameless Nobleman (Plymouth). 

♦Austin, J. G Betty Alden (Plymouth). 

•Austin, J. G Dr. Le Baron and his Daughters (Plymouth). 

♦Austin, J. G Standish of Standish (Plymouth). 

♦Brooks, E. S In Leisler's Times (New York). 

Catherwood, M. H Mackinac and Lake Stories. 

Cooke, J. E My Lady Pocahontas" (Virginia). 

Cooke, J. E Stories of the Old Dominion (Virginia). 

Cooper, J. F Leather Stocking Tales (1750-1800). 

♦Drake, S. A New England Legends and Folk Lore. 

♦ Faith White's Letter Book (New England). 

♦Hawthorne, N Grandfather's Chair (New England). 

♦Hawthorne, N Legends of the Province House (Boston). 

*Ha\vthorne, N Twice Told Tales (New England). 

Holland, J. G Bay Path (Witchcraft). 

Irving, W Knickerbocker History of New York. 

Johnston, M To Have and to Hold (Virginia). 

♦Kellogg, E Good Old Times (Maine). 

Major, C Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (Virginia). 

♦Markham, R Colonial Days. 

Simms, W. G. Vasconselos (De Soto). 

♦Thompson, D. P Green Mountain Boys (Vermont). 

Thackeray, W. M The Virginians. 

THE REVOLUTION 
Histories 

*Abbott, W. J Blue Jackets of 76, Dodd, Mead. 

Carrington, H. B Battles of the American Revolution, Barnes. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 7 

*Coffin, C. C Boys of 76, Harper. 

*Cooke, J. E Stories of the Old Dominion, Harper. 

*Drake, S. A Burgoyne's Invasion, Lothrop r Lee & Shepard. 

Fiske, J The American Revolution, 2 vol., Houghton, 

Mifflin. 
Lodge, H. C The Story of the American Revolution, 2 vol., 

Scribner. 

Lossing, B. J Field Book of the Revolution, 2 vol., Harper. 

Preble, G. H History of the Flag of the United States, 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Roosevelt, T Winning the West, Putnam. 

Sloane, W. M The French War and the Revolution (American 

Historical Series), Scribner. 
*Watson, H. C Boston Tea Party, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. 

Biography 

Butterfield, C. W History of the George Rogers Clark Conquest, 

(Ohio Historical Society). 

Ford, P. L The Many-sided Franklin, Century. 

Greene, F. V General Greene (Great Commanders), Appleton. 

Hosmer, J. K Samuel Adams (American Statesmen), Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 

Lodge, H. C George Washington (American Statesmen), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Lossing, B. J Mary and Martha Washington, Harper. 

*Mayhew, H Young Benjamin Franklin, Harper. 

*Scudder, H. E George Washington, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Thwaites, R. G Daniel Boone, Appleton. 

Tyler, M. C Patrick Henry (American Statesmen), Hough- 
ton, Mifflin: 

Fiction 

Catherwood, M. H Old Kaskaskia. 

Churchill, W The Crossing. 

Cooper, J. F The Pilot, 

Cooper, J. F The Spy. 

Ellis, E. S Wyoming. 

*Harte, B Thankful Blossom. 

*Henty, G. A True to the Flag. 

Kennedy, J. P Horse Shoe Robinson. 

Simins, W. G American Spy. 



8 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Simms, W. G The Partisan. 

Thompson, D. P The Rangers. 

Thompson, M Alice of Old Vincennes. 

THE NATION 

Histories 

Adams, H History of the United States, 1801-1817, 9 vol., 

Scribner. 

♦Abbott, W. J Blue Jackets of 1812, Dodd, Mead. 

♦Black, A The Story of Ohio, Lothrop. 

Bryce, J American Commonwealth, 2 vol., Macmillan. 

Burgess, J. W The Middle Period (American History Series), 

Scribner. 

*Coffin, C. C Building the Nation, Harper. 

*Dole, C. F The American Citizen, Heath. 

Dunn, J. P Indiana (American Commonwealths), Houghton, 

Mifflin. 

Ellet, E. F Pioneer Women of the West, Coates. 

Fiske, J The Critical Period of American History, 2 vol., 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Hart, A. B Formation of the Union (Epochs of American 

History), Longmans. 

Hinsdale, B. A Old Northwest, Silver, Burdett. 

Hopkins, C. T Manual of American Ideas, Heath. 

Hosmer, J. K Short History of the Mississippi Valley, Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 

Hosmer, J. K The Louisiana Purchase, Appleton. 

Irving, W Astoria, Alden. 

Johnson, W. F A Century of Expansion, Macmillan. 

Johnston, A History of American Politics, Holt. 

King, R Ohio (American Commonwealths), Houghton, 

,—n Mifflin. 

^ MiflcMaster, J. B History of the People of the United States 

y, ' 6 vol., Appleton. 

*Mowry, W. A Elements of Civil Government, Silver. Burdett. 

Mowry, W. A Studies in Civil Government, Silver, Burdett. 

Mowry, W. A Territorial Growth of the United States, Silver, 

Burdett. 

Royce, J California (American Commonwealths), Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 

Schouler, J History of the United States under the Con- 
stitution, 6 vol., Dodd, Mead. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 9 

Schuyler, E American Diplomacy, Scribner. 

*Scudder, H. E Men and Manners in America, Scribner. 

Shaler, N. S Kentucky (American Commonwealths), Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 

*Sparks, E. E Men who Made the Nation, Macmillan. 

Sparks, E. E'. The Expansion of the American People, Scott, 

Foresman. 

Spring, L. W Kansas (American Commonwealths), Houghton, 

Mifflin. 

Thorpe, F. N The Constitutional History of the United 

States, Harper. 

*Towle, G. M Heroes and Martyrs of Invention, Lothrop, 

Lee & Shepard. 

Walker, F. A The Making of the Nation (American History 

Series), Scribner. 

Biography 

*Bowne, E. S A Girl's Life Eighty Years Ago, Scribner. 

Brady, C. T Stephen Decatur (Beacon Biographies), Howe. 

Bruce, H General Houston (Makers of America), Dodd, 

Mead. 

Gay, S. H James Madison, 2 vol. (American Statesmen), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

*Larcom, L A New England Girlhood, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Leighton, W. R Lewis and Clark (Riverside Biographies), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Lodge, H. C Alexander Hamilton (American Statesmen), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Lodge, H. C Daniel Webster (American Statesmen), Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 

Morse, J. T John Adams, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Morse, J. T John Quincy Adams, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Morse, J. T Thomas Jefferson, Houghton, Mifflin. 

Shurtz, C Henry Clay, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. 

Sumner, W. G Alexander Hamilton (Makers of America), 

Dodd, Mead. 

Sumner, W. G Andrew Jackson (American Statesmen), Hough- 
ton, Mifflin. 

Von Hoist, H John C. Calhoun, Houghton, Mifflin. 



10 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Fiction 

Atherton, G The Conquest (Hamilton). 

Bynner, E. L Zachary Phips (Burr's Treason). 

Craddock, C. E Prophet of Great Smoky Mountain (Tennessee). 

(M. N. Murfree). 

Eggleston, E Hoosier Schoolboy. 

Eggleston, E Hoosier Schoolmaster. 

Hale, E. E Philip Nolan's Friends (Louisiana Purchase). 

*HaIe, E. E The Man without a Country (Burr's Treason). 

Jackson, H. H Ramona (Indians). 



THE CIVIL WAR AND SUBSEQUENT PERIOD 
Histories 

♦Abbott, W. J Blue Jackets of '61, Dodd, Mead. 

♦Abbott, W. J The Battlefields of '61, Dodd, Mead. 

Andrews, E. B The Last Quarter of a Century, 2 vol., Scribner. 

Andrews, E. B The United States in our own Times, Scribncr. 

*Blaisdell, A. F Stories of the Civil War, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. 

*Brooks, E. S Story of our War with Spain, Lothrop, Lee & 

Shepard. 

Brooks, N Washington in Lincoln's Time, Century. 

Burgess, J. W The Civil War and the Constitution, 2 vol. 

(American History Series), Scribncr. 

*Champlin, J. D. J Young Folks' History of the War for the Union, 

Holt. 

*Coffin, C. C Boys of '61, Harper. 

*Coffin, C. C Marching to Victory, Harper. 

Custer, G. A Boots and Saddle, Harper. 

Custer, G. A Tenting on the Plains, Webster. 

Dodge, T. A Bird's-Eye View of our Civil War, Houghton, 

Mifflin. 

Draper, A. S The Rescue of Cuba, Silver, Burdett. 

Dunning, W. A Civil War and Reconstruction, Maemillan. 

Eggleston, G. C A Rebel's Recollections, Putnam. 

Cordon, J. B Reminiscences of the Civil War, Scribncr. 

Greeley, H The American Conflict, 2 vol., Case. 

Campaigns of the Civil War, 13 vol., Scribner. 

*Kieffer, H. M Recollections of a Drummer Boy, Houghton, 

Mifflin. 

Longstreet, J From Manassas to Appomattox, Lippincott. 

Rhodes, J. H History of the United States from the Com- 
promise of 1850, 5 vol., Harper. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 1 

Roosevelt, T The Rough Riders, Scribner. 

*Soley, J. R Sailor Boys of '61, Dana Estes. 

*T\vombley, A. S Hawaii and its People, Silver, Burdett. 

Wilson, W Division and Reunion (Epochs of American 

History), Longmans. 

Biography 

Barnes, J David G. Farragut (Beacon Biographies), 

Howe. 

Cooke, J. E Life of General R. E. Lee, Appleton. 

Grant, U. S Personal Memoirs, 2 vol., Webster. 

*Headley, P. C Fighting Phil, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. 

Nicolay and Hay Life of Abraham Lincoln, 10 vol., Century. 

Morse, J. T Abraham Lincoln, 2 vol. (American Statesmen), 

Houghton, Mifflin. 

Randolph, S.N Life of Stonewall Jackson, Lippincott. 

Sheridan, P Memoirs, Webster. 

Sherman, W. T Memoirs, Webster. 

*Stratemyer, E Boys'-Life of William McKinley, Lothrop, Lee & 

Shepard. 
*Stratemyer, E Boys' Life of Theodore Roosevelt, Lothrop, Lee & 

Shepard. 

Washington, B. T Up from Slavery, Doubleday, Page. 

Wister, O Ulysses S. Grant (Beacon Biographies), Howe. 

Fiction 

Churchill, W The Crisis. 

*Comn, C. C Winning his Way. 

*Page, T. N Two Little Confederates. 

*Thomas, M. M Captain Phil. 

Stoddard, W. O The Boy Lincoln. 

Trowbridge, J. T Cudjo's Cave. 

*Trowbridge. J. T Three Scouts. 



APPENDIX B 

CHRONOLOGY 
From the Year One Thousand 

1000. Voyage of Norsemen to America. 

14.53. Constantinople captured by the Turks. 

1487. Diaz reaches Cape of Good Hope. 

1492. Columbus discovers San Salvador, August 12. 

1493. Pope Alexander VI divides the unexplored world. 

1497. Vasco da Gama reaches India. 

John Cabot discovers North America, June. 
First vogaye of Amerigo Vespucci. 

1498. Second voyage of John Cabot. 
Columbus reaches South America, August. 

1499. Second voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. 

1507. The new world called America by Waldseemuller. 

1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 

1522. Sebastian del Cano completes first voyage around the world. 

1524. Voyage of Verrazzano. 

1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier. 

1540. Second voyage of Jacques Cartier. 

1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 

1562. French settlement at Port Royal. 

1563. Hawkins carries first slaves to West Indies. 

1564. Fort Caroline built. 

1565. St. Augustine founded. 

1568. De Gourgues massacres the Spaniards. 

1576. First voyage of Martin Frobisher. 

1578. Frobisher attempts to colonize Labrador. 

1580. Sir Francis Drake completes voyage around the world. 

1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempts to colonize Newfoundland. 

1584. English explore Virginia. 

1585. Raleigh sends colony to Roanoke Island. 
1587. Raleigh sends second colony to America. 

12 



CHRONOLOGY 13 

The Seventeenth Century. 

1605. Santa Fe founded by Spaniards. 

160G. London and Plymouth companies formed. 

1607. Settlement at Jamestown, May 13. 

1608. Scrooby Pilgrims move to Holland. 
Champlain founds Quebec, July. 

1609. Henry Hudson explores the Hudson River. 
Champlain explores Lake Champlain. 

1610. Hudson discovers Hudson Bay. 

1612. Cultivation of tobacco begun in Virginia. 
1615. Champlain reaches Lake Huron. 

1619. First slaves brought to Virginia. 

First assembly of House of Burgesses, July. 

1620. Settlement at Plymouth, December 21. 

1623. Dutch settle at Manhattan. 
Settlements at Dover and Portsmouth. 

Lord Baltimore attempts to colonize Newfoundland. 
Fishing settlement at Cape Ann. 

1624. Virginia becomes a royal colony. 

1625. Jesuits arrive in Canada. 

1626. Roger Conant settles at Naumkeag. 
Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island. 

1628. John Endicott arrives at Salem.- 
Lord Baltimore visits Virginia. 

1629. Charter granted to Company of Massachusetts Bay. 

1630. Settlement at Boston, August. 
1632. Maryland granted to Cecil Calvert. 
1634. Settlement at St. Mary's, March. 

1635-6. Settlements at Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford. 

1636. Settlement at Providence. 
Harvard College founded. 

1637. Pequot war. 

1638. Swedes settle Delaware. 
Settlement at Newport. 
Settlement at New Haven. 

1639. Connecticut Constitution adopted. 

1643. New England Union formed. 

New Hampshire joined to Massachusetts. 

1644. Union of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 
1647. Peter Stuyvesant becomes governor of New Netherland. 

Free School Act passed in Massachusetts. 
1649. Baltimore frames the Toleration Act, April 



14 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1651. First Navigation Act passed. 
1653. Settlement at Albemarle. 
Settlement at Clarendon. 
1655. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 
1659. Quakers hanged on Boston Common. 

1663. Eliot's Bible published. 

Carolina given to eight proprietors. 

Navigation Acts destroy New England commerce. 

1664. New Netherland conquered by the English, September. 
. New Jersey granted to Carteret and Berkeley. 

1665. Settlement at Elizabethtown. 
New Haven and Connecticut united. 

1670. Settlement at Charleston. 

1673. Marquette and Joliet explore the Mississippi. 

1674. New Jersey divided. 
1675-6. King Philip's war. 
1676. Bacon's rebellion. 

1679. New Hampshire made a royal province. 

1681. Pennsylvania granted to William Penn. 

1682. Philadelphia founded. 

La Salle reaches the mouth of the Mississippi. 
1684. Massachusetts charter annulled. 

La Salle attempts to colonize Louisiana. 

1686. Sir Edmund Andros becomes governor of New England. 

1687. Andros demands Connecticut charter. 
1689. Restoration of Massachusetts charter. 

King William's war begun. 

1692. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony. 

1693. William and Mary College opened. 
1695. Settlement at Kaskaskia. 

1697. King William's war closed by treaty of Ryswick. 

1699. Settlement at Biloxi. 

1700. Yale College founded. 

The Eighteenth Century. 
1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province. 

Queen Anne's war begun. 
1705. Settlement at Vincennes. 

1713. Queen Anne's war ended by treaty of Utrecht. 
1718. Settlement at New Orleans. 
1729. North and South Carolina divided. 
1733. Settlement at Savannah, February. 
1738. Princeton College founded. 



CHRONOLOGY 15 

1744. King George's war begun. 

1748. King George's war ended by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Ohio Company formed. 

1749. French take possession of Ohio Valley. 

1750. First expedition of Ohio Company. 
1752. Georgia becomes royal province. 

1754. Battle at Fort Duquesne. 
French and Indian war begun. 
Meeting of Albany Convention, June. 

1755. Braddock's defeat, July. 

1756. War declared. 

1757. William Pitt becomes Secretary for Foreign Affairs. 

1758. Battle of Ticonderoga, July. 
Capture of Louisburg, July. 
Capture of Fort Duquesne, November. 

1759. Capture of Fort Niagara, July. 
Capture of Ticonderoga, July. 

Battle of the Plains of Abraham, September 13. 
Surrender of Quebec, September 18. 
1763. French and Indian war closed by treaty of Paris, February. 

1765. Parliament passes the Stamp Act, March. 

1766. Stamp Act repealed. 

1767. Parliament taxes tea, etc. 

1768. British troops arrive in Boston. 
1770. Boston Massacre, March 5. 

Parliament removes taxes except on tea. 

1772. Burning of the Gaspee, June 9. 

1773. Boston Tea Party, December 16. 

1774. First Continental Congress, September 5. 
Burning of the Peggy Stewart, October. 
First settlement in Kentucky. 
Parliament passes Quebec Act. 

1775. Salem resists British soldiers, February 26. 
Battle of Lexington and Concord, April 19. 
Mecklenburg declaration of independence, May 31. 
Congress elects commander-in-chief of army, June 15. 
Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

Washington assumes command of army, July 3. 

1776. Washington fortifies Dorchester Heights, March. 
British evacuate Boston, March 17. 

Rhode Island declares independence, May. 
Declaration of Independence, July 4. 
Battle of Long Island, August 27. 



16 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1776. Battle of White Plains, October 28. 
Surrender of Fort Washington, November 17. 
Battle of Trenton, December 26. 

1777. Battle of Princeton, January 3. 
Burgoyne captures Ticonderoga, July 6. 
Capture of General Prescott, July 20. 
Howe sails for Philadelphia, July 23. 
Battle of Bennington, August 16. 
Battle of the Brandywine, September 11. 

Battle of Freeman's Farm (Stillwater), September 19. 
Philadelphia occupied by British, September 26. 
Battle of Germantown, October 4. 
Battle of Bemis's Heights, October 7. 
Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17. 
1777-8. Winter quarters at Valley Forge. 

1778. Treaty of alliance with France, February 6. 
British evacuate Philadelphia, June 18. 
Battle of Monmouth, June 28. 

Clarke captures Kaskaskia. 

British capture Savannah, December 29. 

1779. Vincennes captured, February 24. 
Capture of Stony Point, July 16. 
Capture of Paulus Hook, August 19. 

Paul Jones captures the Serapis, September 23. 

1780. Clinton overruns the South. 
Battle of Camden, August 16. 
Arnold's treason, September. 
Death of Andre\ October 2. 

Battle of King's Mountain, October 7. 

1781. Battle of Cowpens, January 17. 

Articles of Confederation go into effect, March. 
Battle of Guilford Court-house, March 15. 
Battle of Hobkirk Hill, April 25. 
New London burned, September 6. 
Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8. 
Siege of Yorktown, October. 
Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19. 

1782. Provisional treaty of peace, November 30. 

1783. Treaty of peace, September 3. 

1787 .Convention to revise Articles of Confederation, May. 

Northwest Territory organized. 

Constitution of the United States signed, September 17. 
1788. Settlement at Marietta. 



CHRONOLOGY 17 

1788. Constitution ratified by ninth State, June. 

1789. Washington inaugurated President, April 30. 

1790. The first census. 

Cotton goods first manufactured by machinery. 
Rhode Island ratifies the Constitution. 

1791. First bank of the United States established. 
Vermont admitted to Union. 

First ten amendments to Constitution. 

1792. Captain Grey discovers the Columbia River. 
Kentucky admitted. 

1793. Washington issues neutrality proclamation. 
Cotton-gin invented. 

Corner-stone of Capitol laid at Washington. 

1795. Jay's treaty ratified. 

Treaty with Spain securing free navigation of the Mississippi. 

1796. Tennessee admitted. 

1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4. 
Difficulties with France. 

1798. Alien and Sedition Laws. 
Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. 

1799. Death of Washington, December 14. 

1800. Treaty with France. 
Congress meets in Washington. 

The Nineteenth Century. 

1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated. 
War with Tripoli. 

1802. Ohio admitted. 

1803. Twelfth amendment to Constitution ratified. 
Purchase of Louisiana. 

1804-6. Lewis and Clark explore the Columbia River to the Pacific. 

1804. Death of Alexander Hamilton. 

1805. Peace with Tripoli. 

1806. Burr's conspiracy. 

1807. British ship fires upon the Chesapeake. 
Invention of steamboat. 

Embargo Act, December. 

1808. Slave trade prohibited. 

1809. Non-intercourse Act, February. 
James Madison inaugurated. 

1811. Settlement at Astoria. 

Battle between the Little Belt and the President, May. 
Battle of Tippecanoe, November. 



18 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1812. Louisiana admitted. 

War with Great Britain declared, June. 

Battle between the Constitution and the Guerriere, August. 

Battle between the Wasp and the Frolic, October. 

Battle between the United States and the Macedonian, October. 

Battle between the Constitution and the Java, December. 

Capture of the Chesapeake, June. 

Massacre at Fort Minis, August. 

Battle of Lake Erie, September. 

1814. Washington burned, August. 

Battle of Lake Champlain, September. 
Attack of Fort McHenry, September. 
The Hartford Convention, December. 
Treaty of peace, December. 

1815. Battle of New Orleans, January. 

1816. Second United States bank chartered. 
Indiana admitted. 

1817. James Monroe inaugurated. 
Mississippi admitted. 

1818. Seminole war. 
Illinois admitted. 

1819. Purchase of Florida. 
Alabama admitted. 

1820. Maine admitted. 
Missouri Compromise. 

First pair of rubber shoes brought from Brazil. 

1821. Missouri admitted. 

1823. The Monroe Doctrine. 

1824. New protective tariff. 

1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated. 
Erie Canal completed. 

1826. American Society for the Promotion of Temperance formed. 
Deaths of Jefferson and Adams, July 4. 

1828. Tariff of Abominations. 

1829. Andrew Jackson inaugurated. 
Beginning of the "Spoils System." 
First steam railroad. 

1830. Webster-Hayne debate. 

1831. Invention of reaping machine (patented 1834). 

1832. New protective tariff. 

Ordinance of nullification, November. 
Revenue Collection bill 

1833. Compromise tariff. 



CHRONOLOGY 19 



1833. Removal of bank deposits. 

1836. Invention of friction matches. 
Anthracite coal used. 
Texas declares independence. 
Arkansas admitted. 

1837. Michigan admitted. 

Martin Van Buren inaugurated. 
Financial panic. 

1838. Cherokees removed. 
Gag Law passed. 

1840. Washington ian Temperance Society formed. 
Sub-treasuries established. 

Beginning of European immigration. 

1841. William Henry Harrison inaugurated. 
Death of Harrison, April. 

1842. Webster-Ashburton treaty, August. 
Dorr rebellion. 

1843. Immigration to Oregon. 

1844. First electric telegraph. 
Vulcanized rubber invented. 

1845. Florida admitted. 
Annexation of Texas. 
James K. Polk inaugurated. 

1846. Ether used in surgical operations. 
Sewing-machine invented. 
Oregon treaty. 

Iowa admitted. 
Battle of Palo Alto, May. 
Mexican war declared, May. 
Conquest of California. 
Capture of New Mexico. 
Wilmot proviso defeated. 
Capture of Monterey. 

1847. Postage stamps adopted. 

Battle of Buena Vista, February. 
Battle of Vera Cruz, March. 
Capture of Mexico, September. 

1848. Gold discovered in California. 

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February. 
Wisconsin admitted. 

1849. Zachary Taylor inaugurated. 

1850. Webster's speech, March. 
Clayton-Buhver treaty, April. 



20 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1850. Death of President Taylor, July. 
Compromise of 1850, September. 
California admitted. 

Fugitive slave law. 

1851. Postal rates reduced. 

1852. Franklin Pierce inaugurated. 

1853. World's Fair at New York. 
Commodore Perry in Japan. 
Gadsden purchase. 

1854. Treaty with Japan. 
Kansas-Nebraska bill. 
Civil war in Kansas. 

1856. Formation of Republican party. 
Assault on Charles Sumner. 

1857. James Buchanan inaugurated. 
Dred Scott decision. 

First Atlantic cable. 

1858. Minnesota admitted. 
Lincoln-Douglas debates. 

1859. Oregon admitted. 

First profitable oil well sunk. 
John Brown's raid, October. 

1860. Abraham Lincoln elected. 

South Carolina secedes, December 20. 

1861. Six Southern States secede, January. 
Confederate States of America formed, February. 
Kansas admitted. 

1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. 
Fort Sumter evacuated, April 14. 

Call for troops issued, April 15. 

Mob at Baltimore, April 19. 

Four more States secede. 

Great Britain recognizes Confederate States as belligerents, May. 

Battle of Bull Run, July 21. 

Battle of Wilson's Creek, August 10. 

Capture of Fort Hatteras, August 29. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff, October 21. 

Capture of Port Royal, November 7. 

The Trent Affair, November 8. 

1862. Capture of Fort Henry, February 6. 
Capture of Roanoke Island, February 8. 
Capture of Bowling Green, Fel>ruary 8. 
Capture of Fort Donelson, February 16. 



CHRONOLOGY 21 

1862. Battle between the Merrimac and the Monitor, March 9. 
Capture of New Madrid, March 13. 

Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 7. 

Capture of Island No. 10, April 8. 

Capture of Fort Pulaksi, April 11. 

Capture of New Orleans, April 25. 

Capture of Yorktown, May 4. 

Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. 

Capture of Fort Pillow, June 4. 

Jackson's raid, June. 

Seven Days' Battles, June 25-July 1. 

Second Battle of Bull Run, August 29, 30. 

Battle of South Mountain, September 14. 

Capture of Harper's Ferry, September 15. 

Battle of Antietam, September 17. 

Battle of Iuka, September 19, 20. 

Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, September 22. 

Battle of Corinth, October 3, 4. 

Battle of Perryville, October 8. 

Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13. 

1863. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 
Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3. 
West Virginia admitted, June. 

' Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3. 
Capture of Vicksburg, July 4. 
Capture of Port Hudson, July 9. 
Battle of Chickamauga, September 19, 20. 
Battle of Chattanooga, November 23-25. 

1864. Grant made lieutenant-general, March. 
Battles of the Wilderness, May 5-7. 
Battle of Dalton, May 9. 

Battle of Resaca, May 13-16. 

Battle of Dallas, May 25-June 4. 

Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, June 9-30. 

Battle between the Kearsage and Alabama, June 19. 

Battle of Mobile Bay, August 5-23. 

Capture of the Georgia August. 

Capture of Atlanta, September 2. 

Battle of Winchester, September 19. 

Battle of Fisher Hill, September 22. 

Battle of Cedar Creek, October 19. 

Nevada admitted, November. 

Sherman begins march to the sea, November 12. 



22 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1864. Battle of Franklin, November 30. 
Battle of Nashville, December 15, 16. 
Capture of Savannah, December 21. 

1865. Battle of Five Forks, April 1. 
Petersburg captured, April 2. 
Fall of Richmond, April 3. 

Lee surrenders at Appomattox, April 9. 
Flag raised over Sumter, April 14. 
Death of President Lincoln, April 15. 
Johnston surrenders, April 26. 
Taylor surrenders, May 4. 
Capture of Jefferson Davis, May 11. 
Review of Union armies, May 23, 24. 
Thirteenth amendment ratified, December 18. 

1866. Atlantic cable completed, July 27. 

1867. Alaska purchased, March. 
Nebraska admitted. 

1868. Impeachment of President Johnson. 
Fourteenth amendment ratified. 
Treaty with China. 

1869. Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated. 
Pacific railroad completed, May 10. 

1870. Fifteenth amendment ratified. 
Weather Bureau established. 

1871. Treaty of Washington, May 8. 
Chicago fire, October. 

1872. Geneva awards, September. 
Boston fire, November. 
Modoc war. 

1873. Beginning of business depression. 

1875. Postal cards first used. 

1876. Opening of Centennial Exhibition, May. 
Sioux war. 

Invention of the telephone. 
Colorado admitted, August. 

1877. Fleet oral Commission, February. 
Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated. 

United States troops .withdrawn from the South. 

1878. Bland-Allison Act passed. 

1879. Resumption of specie payments, January. 
Mississippi jetties completed. 

1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated, March. 

Death of President Garfield, September 19. 



CHRONOLOGY 23 

1882. Anti-polygamy bill passed. 

1883. Pendleton Civil Service bill passed, January. 
Postal rates reduced. 

Railroad time adopted. 

1885. Grover Cleveland inaugurated. 

1886. Presidential Succession bill passed. 
Anarchist riots in Chicago. 

Statue of Liberty presented by France. 

1887. Interstate Commerce Act. 
Electoral Count bill. 

1888. Chinese Expulsion Act. 

1889. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated. 
Oklahoma territory opened. 

South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, and Washington admitted. 
1889-90. Pan-American Congress. 

1890. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. 
Sherman Silver law. 
Difficulties with Italy and Chile. 

1891. International Coypright Act. 

1892. Homestead strike. 
Australian ballot adopted. 
Naval parade, October 12. 

1893. Hawaiian revolution, January. 
Grover Cleveland inaugurated, March. 
Columbian World's Fair opened, May. 
Bering Sea decision, August. 
Business panic. 

1894. Railroad strike. 

1897. William McKinley inaugurated, March. 

1898. The Maine blown up in Havana, February 15. 
War declared with Spain, April 25. 

Battle of Manila, May 1. 
Merrimac sunk at Santiago, June 3. 
Destruction of Cervera's fleet, July 3. 
Hawaiian Islands annexed, July 7. 
Surrender of Santiago, July 17. 
Porto Rican campaign. 
Surrender of Manila, August 13 

1899. Treaty of peace ratified, February 6. 
Philippine insurrection. 

1900. Treaty of Berlin ratified, January. 
Hawaii becomes a territory, April. 
Hague Peace Conference, May. 



24 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1900. Chinese insurrection, June. 
President McKinley reelected, November. 

The Twentieth Century 

1901. Aguinaldo captured, March. 
Pan-American Exposition, May 20. 
President McKinley assassinated, September 6. 
Theodore Roosevelt takes oath of office, Septemljer 14. 
Hay-Pauncefote treaty, December 16. 

1902. Cuba becomes an independent republic, May 20. 
Prince Henry visits the United States. 
Anthracite coal workers' strike. 

"Pius Fund" decision rendered, October 14. 

1903. Completion of Pacific cable. 

Alaskan boundary decision, October 17. 

1904. Treaty with Panama ratified, February 23. 
Rochambeau statue unveiled, May. 

1905. President Roosevelt inaugurated. 



APPENDIX C 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF TH*E UNITED STATES OF 
AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God 
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires 
that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, 
whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, 
it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a 
new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organ- 
ising its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to 
effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
governments long established should not be changed for light and 
transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that 
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than 
to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- 
tomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing 
invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under 
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
government, and to provide new guards for their future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is 
now the necessity that constrains them to alter their former systems 
of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is 

25 



26 ESSENTIA I. S OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct 
object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- 
comfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his 
measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; 
the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all dangers of 
invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without 
the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 27 

to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing there an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in 
the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeav- 
ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian 
savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction 
of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, 
in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked 
by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a 
free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 



28 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legis- 
lature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have 
reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement 
here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; 
and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to 
disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our 
connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the 
voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce 
in the necessity which denounces our separation; and hold them, as 
we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, 
in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare : — That these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance 
to the British crown, and that all political connection between them 
and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and 
that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, 
conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all 
other acts and things which independent states may of right do. 
And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the 
protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 



APPENDIX D 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the 
Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

[Note. — ■ The small figures in brackets are not in the original, but have been 
added subsequently, to mark the different clauses in a section. In reprinting the 
Constitution here, the spelling, punctuation, and capitalization of the original have 
been preserved.] 

Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section 2. ^ The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
Members chosen every second year by the People of the several 
States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications 
requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State 
Legislature. 

^ No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained 
to the Age of twenty five years, and been seven Years a Citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant 
of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

^ Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, according 
to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to 
the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service 
for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of 
all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within 
three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, 

29 



30 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as 
they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not 
exceed one for every Thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at 
Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, 
the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massa- 
chusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Con- 
necticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, 
Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South 
Carolina five, and (leorgia three. 

^ When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, 
the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill 
such Vacancies. 

^ The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other 
officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section 3. ^ The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

t 2 ' Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of 
the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated 
at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expi- 
ration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of 
the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second \ Car; 
and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the 
Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may 
make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legis- 
lature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. 

® No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that 
State for which he shall be chosen. 

[4] The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

[5] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President 
pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall 
exercise the Office of President of the United States. 

[(il The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 31 

shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- 
rence of two thirds of the Members present. 

^ Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
Office of honour, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the 
Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, 
Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. 

Section 4. [1] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections 
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law 
make or alter such Regulations, except as to the places of chusing 
Senators. 

^ The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall 
by Law appoint a different Day. 

Section 5. [11 Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, 
Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of 
each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number 
may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such 
Penalties as each House may provide. 

™ Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish 
its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of 
two thirds, expel a Member. 

"1 Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their 
Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of 
either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those 
Present, bejentered on the Journal. 

[4] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall bo sitting. 

Section 6. W The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, ex- 
cept Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest 
during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and 
in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or de- 
bate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 



32 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

t 21 No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emolu- 
ments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no 
Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member 
of either House during his Continuance in Office. 

Section 7. [1] All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
Amendments as on other Bills. 

t 2 ' Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the 
President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if 
not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their 
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration 
two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, 
together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall 
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, 
it shall become a Law. But in all such cases the Votes of both Houses 
shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons 
voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each 
House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President 
within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented 
to him, the same shall be a law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, 
unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which 
Case it shall not be a Law. 

f 3 ' Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except 
on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of 
the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be 
approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by 
two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to 
the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

Section 8. The Congress shall have Power 

M To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay 
the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare 
of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be 
uniform throughout the United States; 

t 2] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 33 

[3] t re g U i a te Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian Tribes; 

^ To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform 
Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

[5] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, 
and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; 

[6] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities 
and current Coin of the United States; 

^ To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 

™ To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing 
for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to 
their respective Writings and Discoveries; 

^ To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; 

^ 10J To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the 
high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; 

^ To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Reprisal, and 
make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; 

[12 ^ To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to 
that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; 

f 13 l To provide and maintain a Navy; 

t 14 l To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land 
and naval Forces; 

f 15 ^ To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of 
the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; 

t 10 ' To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, 
and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the 
Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the 
Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia 
according to the Discipline prescribed by Congress; 

"'* To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over 
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession 
of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the 
Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like 
Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legis- 
lature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of 
Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; 
— And 

^ ' To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers 



34 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, 
or in any Department or Officer thereof. 

Section 9. ^ The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be 
prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight, but a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Im- 
portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. 

•t 2 ' The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may 
require it. 

^ No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

' 4 ' No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Pro- 
portion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be 
taken. 

' 5] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

[<>] N Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall 
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or 
pay Duties in another. 

f 71 No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence 
of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account 
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- 
lished from time to time. 

M No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And 
no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, 
without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolu- 
ment, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, 
or foreign State. 

Section 10. ^ No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or 
Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; 
emit 1 >ills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender 
in Payment of Debts; pass any Hill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, 
or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of 
Nobility. 

^ No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any 
Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net 
Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or 
Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 35 

and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of 
the Congress. 

^ No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty 
of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into 
any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign 
Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
Danger as will not admit of Delay. 

ARTICLE II 

Section 1. ^ The executive Power shall be vested in a President 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the 
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for 
the same Term, be elected, as follows 

[2 1 Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number 
of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled 
in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding 
an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an Elector. 

* ^ The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant 
of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of 
all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which 
List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the 
Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and 
the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest 
Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority 
of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more 
than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, 
then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot 
one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority; then 
from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like manner 
chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall 
be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one 
Vote ; a Quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members 

*This clause has been superseded by the 12th amendment, see page 42. 



36 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the Presi- 
dent, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors 
shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more 
who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot 
the Vice President. 

M The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, 
and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be 
the same throughout the United States. 

^ No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the 
United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be 
eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty 
five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United 
States. 

[ () 1 In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his 
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and 
the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, 
Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, 
declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer 
shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

^ The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his services, a 
Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during 
the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

^ Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the 
following Oath or Affirmation: — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section 2. ^ The President shall be Commander in Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he 
may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each 
of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the 



CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 37 

Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant 
Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except 
in Cases of Impeachment. 

[2] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of 
the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice 
and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public 
Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other 
Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but 
the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior 
Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of 
Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

t3] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions 
which shall expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- 
ation such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he 
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to 
the time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he 
shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public 
Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and 
shall Commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, 
and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Mis- 
demeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Section 1. The Judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of 
the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good 
Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a 
Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance 
in Office. 

Section 2. ^ The Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law 



38 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United 
States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- 
ity; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to 
Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; — to 
Controversies between two or more States; — between a State and 
Citizens of another State; — between Citizens of different States, — 
between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and 
foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 

f 2 ' In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court 
shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before men- 
tioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as 
to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations 
as the Congress shall make. 

wl The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be 
by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said 
Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within 
any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress 
may by Law have directed. 

Section 3. ^' Treason against the United States, shall consist only 
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving 
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason 
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or 
on Confession in open Court. 

' 2 ' The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of 
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, 
or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner 
in which such Acts, Records, and Proceedings shall be proved, and 
the Effect thereof. 

Section 2. [11 The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

t 2] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 39 

Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, 
shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction 
of the Crime. 

^ No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the 
Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any 
Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, 
but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service 
or Labour may be due. 

Section 3. ^ New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the 
Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent 
of the Legislature of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

f 2 ' The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful 
Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property 
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of 
any particular State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in 
this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each 
of them against Invasion, and on Application of the Legislature, or 
of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against 
domestic Violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, 
shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either 
Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Con- 
stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the 
several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one 
or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; 
Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year 
one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the 
first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and 
that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
Suffrage in the Senate. 



40 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

ARTICLE VI 

[1] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the 
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

^ This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall 
be made in pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall 
be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary 
notwithstanding. 

^ The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, 
shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; 
but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any 
Office or public Trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so 
ratifying the Same. 

Articles in Addition to, and Amendment of, the Con- 
stitution OF THE L T NITED STATES OF AMERICA, 

Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several 
States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution 

ARTICLE I 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be 
infringed. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 41 

ARTICLE III 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, 
supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the 
place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, 
when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, 
without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the 
nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him; to have Compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in 
his favour, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII 

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common 
law. 



42 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

ARTICLE VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens 
or Subjects of any Foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall 
not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall 
name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct 
ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make 
distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons 
voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, 
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seal 
of the government of the United States, directed to the President of 
the Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and 
the votes shall then be counted; — The person having the greatesi 
number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no 
person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 43 

by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be 
necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not 
choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other 
constitutional disability of the President. — The person having the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Presi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors 
appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two 
highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; 
a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole 
number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of 
the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to 
their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make 
or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the 
laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But 
when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in 



44 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members 
of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United 
States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion 
or other crimes, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the 
proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such 
State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil 
or military, under the United States or under any State, who having 
previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer 
of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as 
an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebel- 
lion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. 
But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each house remove such 
disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State, 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- 
rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and 
claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate 
legislation the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 



APPENDIX E 

LINCOLN'S ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG 

The short address made by President Lincoln, November 19th, 
1S63, at the dedication of the National Cemetery on the battlefield 
of Gettysburg, has become a classic, and is justly entitled to be ranked 
as one of the choicest gems of literature in the English language. It 
embodies in brief the philosophy of the whole great struggle. 

Various reports have been made as to how, when, and under what 
circumstances the President wrote the address. In the note of invi- 
tation to the President, written November 2d by the master of cere- 
monies, occurs this sentence: "It is the desire that, after the oration, 
you, as Chief Executive of the Nation, formally set apart these 
grounds to their sacred use, by a few appropriate remarks." 

It was probable, therefore, that the President had given some 
thought to the subject before the day arrived, but there is conclusive 
evidence that the words of the address were not written out until 
after the Presidential party had arrived upon the ground. 

The following account of the writing of the address was received 
directly from the lips of ex-Governor Curtin, of Pennsylvania, who 
was present on the occasion and knew whereof he affirmed. Governor 
Curtin said that after the arrival of the party from Washington, while 
the President and his Cabinet, Edward Everett, the orator of the day, 
Governor Curtin, and others were sitting in the parlor of the hotel, 
the President remarked that he understood the committee expected 
him to say something and that he would, therefore, if they would excuse 
him, retire to the next room and see if he could write out something. 
He- was absent some time, and upon returning to the company had in 
his hand a large-sized, yellow government envelope. The President 
sat down, and remarked that he had written something, and with 
their permission he would like to read it to them, and invited them to 
criticise it. After reading what he had written upon the envelope, 
he asked for any suggestions they might make. Secretary Seward 
volunteered one or two comments, which Mr. Lincoln accepted and 

45 



46 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

incorporated. Then he said, "Now, gentlemen, if you will excuse me 
again, I will copy this off," and retiring again made a fresh copy to 
read from. 

" Ah! " said Governor Curtin, " if I had begged that yellow envelope, 
which contained the original draft of this justly famous speech, how 
valuable it would have proved for the fairs which were, soon after, 
the order of the day." 

The following is a complete copy of this famous address: — 

"Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this 
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the 
proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in 
a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so con- 
ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great 
battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that 
field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that 
that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we 
should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot 
consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living 
and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor 
power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remem- 
ber, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. 
It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished 
work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. 
It is rather for US to be here dedicated to the great task remaining 
before us, — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion 
to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion, — 
that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in 
vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, 
and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall 
not perish from the earth." 



APPENDIX F 

COLONIAL POSSESSIONS 



Area in 

SQUARE 
MILES. 



POPULATION. 



LARGEST 
CITY. 



Guam 

Philippine Islands 

Porto Rico 

Samoan group 

Wake and other islands 

Total 



195* 
127,853* 
3,676 
80* 



9,000* 
6,975,073* 
953.243 
5,800* 



Agona 
Manila 
San Juan 
Leone 



131,804 7,943,116 



♦Estimated. 



47 



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ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



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INDEX 



Adams, John, administration of, 
193. 

Adams, John Quincy, administra- 
tion of, 223. 

Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 308. 

Alamance, 108. 

Alaska, purchase of, 320. 

Albany plan of Union, 92. 

Albemarle, Confederate cruiser, 309. 

Alien Law, 195. 

Andre, Major, 152. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 54. 

Antietam, battle of, 283. 

Arbitration treaties proposed, 371. 

Arkansas admitted 1836, 232. 

Arnold, Benedict, 139. 152; his trea- 
son, 152. 

Arthur, Chester A., administration 
of, 331. 

Atlanta, capture of, 304. 

Australian ballot, 340. 



B 



Bacon's rebellion, 34. 

Baltimore, Lord, 35. 

Bank, the United States, 230; 
Jackson removes deposits of, 230 

Barton, Colonel William, 136. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, 328. 

Bemis's Heights, battle of, 140. 

Bering Sea case, 13-1 1 . 

Berkeley, Sir William, 34. 

Blanco, General, 348. 

Block, Adrian, 57. 

Blockade in Civil War, the, 274. 

Bon Homme Richard, the, 149. 

Boone, Daniel, 146. 

Boston, John Winthrop. 48; gov- 
ernment. 49; linger Williams, 49; 
riot, 106; tea party, 109. 



Braddock, General, 93. 

Brandywine, battle of, 137. 

Bread riots in New York, 234. 

British troops in Boston, 106; 
leave Boston, 122. 

Brown, John, 259. 

Buchanan, James, administration 
of, 257. 

Buffalo, Pan-American exposition 
at, 365. 

Bull Run, battle of, 275. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 118. 

Burgoyne, expedition of, 139; sur- 
render of, 140. 

Burlingame, Anson, 321. 

Burr, Aaron, 205, 206. 

Business depression in 1873, 326. 



Cable, the Atlantic, 321. 

Cabot, John, 14-16. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 16. 

California, adopts constitution, 248; 

gold discovered in, 247. 
Campbell, Colonel, 150. 
Capitol at Washington burned, 211. 
Carolinas, the, 38; early settlers. 38; 

North and South Carolina, 39; 

agriculture, 39; rice and cotton, 

40. 
Carpet-baggers, 319. 
Cartier, Jacques (zhak kar'tya'), 

80. 
Cavite" (ka-ve'ta), 350. 
Census, the first, 1790, 188; of 1900, 

364. 
Centennial at Philadelphia, 327. 
Cervera, Admiral (thar-va'ra'), 

351; his fleet destroyed, 352. 
Champe, John, 153. 
Champlain, Samuel de, 80. 
Chancellorsville, battle of, 294. 



50 



INDEX 



51 



Chattanooga, battle of, 299. 

Cherokees in Georgia, 231. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 299. 

China, treaty with, 321. 

Chinese Exclusion Act, 338; insur- 
rection, 361. 

Christian Commission, 315. 

Civil Service bill, 334; reform, 330, 
336. 

Civil War, 268-312; end of, 311; 
results of, 317. 

Clark, George Rogers, 147. 

Clark, William, 201, 203. 

Clay's compromise tariff, 229. 

Clermont, the, 206. 

Cleveland, Grover, first administra- 
tion of, 336; second adminis- 
tration of, 341. 

Clinton, DeWitt, 221. 

Clinton, General, at New York, 
129. 

Clocks and watches, 335. 

Coligny, Gaspard de (ko-len'ye), 
21. 

Colonial commerce, 101; industries, 
restriction on, 102. 

Columbus, Christopher, 10-14. 

Compromise of 1850, 249. 

Concord, battle at, 115. 

Confederate cruisers, Florida, Shen- 
andoah, and Alabama, 308; Geor- 
gia, Albemarle, 309. 

Confederate states, 269. 

Confederation, Articles of, 164; 
weakness of, 165. 

Connecticut, 51; the first constitu- 
tion, 52; New Haven, 52; Rev. 
John Davenport, 52; Theophilus 
Eaton, 52. 

Constitution framed, 167; adopted, 
168; Preamble, 170; provisions 
for legislative power, 170, con- 
gress, 170, executive power, 172, 
President, powers and duties of, 
172, judicial power, 174; amend- 
ments of, 187, 318. 

Constitution, frigate, 210. 

Conway Cabal, 142. 

Copyright, international. 340. 

Cormvallis, General, 158; surrender 
of, 160. 

Courtesies, international, 369. 

Cowpens, battle of, 157. 



Cuba, troubles in, 346; Congress 

acts on, 348. 
Cumberland Road, 221, 223. 



1) 



Da Gama, Vasco da (vas'ko da 

ga'ma), 9. 
Dale, Thomas, 31. 
Dare, Virginia, 26. 
Davenport, Rev. John, 52. 
Davis, Jefferson, 269; arrested, 314. 
DeGrasse, Count (de-gras'), 159. 
DeKalb, 135. 
Delaware, 60. 
Delaware, Lord, 31. 
D'Estaing, Count (das'-tan), 144, 

150. 
Dewey, Commodore, 349, 350. 
Donelson, Fort, 286. 
Dorr War, 238. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 23. 
Dred Scott Decision, 257. 
Duquesne, Fort, 92. 



E 



Eaton, Theophilus, 52. 

Electoral count bill, 337. 

Eliot, John, 88. 

Elsworth, Oliver, 187. 

Emancipation, 292. 

Embargo act, 204. 

English explorers, 22. 

Erie canal, 221. 

Ether as an anaesthetic, 264. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 157. 



F 



Farragut, Admiral, 308; at New 

Orleans, 289. 
Federal convention of 17S7, 166. 
Ferguson, Major, 151. 
Fillmore, Millard, administration of. 

250. 
Fires in Chicago and Boston, 326. 
First Continental Congress, 111. 
Fishery dispute, 324. 
Florida admitted, 1845, 248. 



52 



INDEX 



Florida, Confederate cruiser, 308. 

Force bill, 229. 

Fox, Charles James, 157. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 284. 

Freeman's Farm, battle of, 140. 

Freesoil party, 248. 

French and Indian wars, 91; re- 
sults of, 100. 

French forts, 92. 

French in Canada, 79; Cartier, 
Jacques, 80; founding of Quebec, 
80; Samuel de Champlain, SO; 
Jesuits, 81; Marquette and Joliet, 
81; La Salle, 83. 

French Revolution, 189. 

French settlements in North Amer- 
ica, 20-22. 

Frobisher, Martin, 22. 

Fulton, Robert, 206. 



G 



Gadsden Purchase, 245. 

Gag rule, 261. 

Garfield and Arthur's administra- 
tion, 333. 

Garfield assassinated, 333. 

Gaspee, burning of the, 108. 

Georgia, Confederate cruiser, 309. 

Georgia, royal province, 41. 

Germantown, battle of, 138. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 295. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 23. 

Gold discovered in California, 247. 

Goodyear, Charles, 263. 

Gorges, Ferdinando, 53. 

Gourgues, Dominique de (do'me- 
nek' da goorg), 22. 

Grant, Ulysses S., 286, 298-303, 
309-311; administration of, 323. 

Greene, General, in the South, 156. 

Grey, Captain, 239. 

Guam, 359. 

Guilford Court House, battle of, 
157. 



II 



Hague conference, 360; court of 
arbitration, 361; cases before the 
court, 361. 



Hamilton, Alexander. 186, 190, 191, 
205. 

Harrison, Benjamin, administration 
of, 339. 

Harrison, William Henry, adminis- 
tration of, 236. 

Harrodsburg, fort at, 146. 

Hartford convention, 214. 

Hawaii (ha-\vle'j, 344, 358; terri- 
tory of, 359. 

Hawkins, Sir William, 22. 

Hawley, Joseph, for revolution and 
independence, 124. 

Hay, John, 362. 

Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 366. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., administra- 
tion of, 330. 

Hayne's and W r ebster's speeches, 
227. 

Henry, Fort, 286. 

Henry, Patrick, 104, 112. 

Hessians, 133. 

Higginson, Francis, 47. 

Hilton Head, capture of, 284. 

Hobson, Lieutenant, 351. 

Hood invades Tennessee, 306. 

Howe and Clinton at New York, 
129. 

Howe, Elias, 263. 

Howe, Robert, 150. 

Hudson, Henry, 56. 

Hull, Captain, 210. 



Iberville, Lemovne (le-mwan' 

de'-bar-vrl'). 85. 
Immigration, 265, 266. 
Independence, trend towards, 123; 

declared by Rhode Island, 123; 

by Virginia, 124; by Congress, 125. 
India rubber, 262. 
Indian homes, 3; occupations, 4; 

women, 5; religion, 6. 
Indiana admitted as a state, 1816, 

2 Hi. 
Indians and the French, 87; and 

the English, 88. 
International copyright, 340. 
International peace, tendencies 

towards, 368. 
Interstate commerce bill, 337. 



INDEX 



53 



Iowa admitted 1846, 248. 
Iroquois, 89. 



Jackson, Andrew, administration 
of, 227. 

Jamestown, 29; difficulties at, 29; 
John Smith, 30; the starving 
time, 30; Lord Delaware, 31; 
Thomas Dale, 31; tobacco, 32; 
slavery, 33; the first assembly, 
33; Bacon's rebellion, 34. 

Jay, John, 187, 190. 

Jefferson, Thomas, and the Decla- 
ration of Independence, 126; 
acquirements of 198; administra- 
tion of, 198. 

Jesuits, 81. 

Johnston, Albert Sidney, 285. 

Joliet (zho'lya/), 81. 

Jones, Paul, 149. 



K 



Kansas border war, 254; Kansas- 
Nebraska act, 253. 

Kaskaskia captured, 148. 

Kentucky admitted 1792, 189; reso- 
lutions of nullification, 196. 

Key, Francis S., 213. 

King Philip, 89. 

King's Mountain, battle of, 151. 

Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko), 135. 



Labor troubles, 342. 

Lafayette, General, 135. 

La Salle, 83. 

Laudonniere, Rene (lo'do'nyar') ,21. 

Lee, General Charles, disobedience 

of, 131; captured, 132. 
Lee, Major Henry, 149. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 125. 
Lee, Robert E., 281-284, 294-297, 

301-303; surrender of, 309. 
Leslie, Colonel, at Salem, 113. 
Lewis and Clark expedition, 202. 
Lewis, Meriwether, 203. 
Lexington and Concord, 114. 



Liberty Bell, 127. 

Life in the colonies, 65; the people, 
66; social conditions, 66; Dutch 
patroons, 67; servants, 68; slaves, 
68; cities, 68; travel, 70; houses, 
71; utensils, 72; home industries, 
73; amusements, 74; Sunday, 74; 
punishments, 75; schools, 77; 
colleges, 77. 

Lincoln, Abraham, first administra- 
tion of, 268; inaugurated, 271; 
call for troops, 273; second ad- 
ministration of, 313; assassinated, 
314. 

Lincoln and Douglas debates, 258. 

Livingston, Robert R., 206. 

London Company, 27. 

Long Island, battle of, 129. 

Lousiana, under Spain and France, 
200; purchase of, 200; admitted 
as a state, 1812, 216. 



M 



MacDonough, Commodore, 210. 

Madison, James, administration of, 
208. 

Magellan, Fernando, 18, 19. 

Maine, the, destruction of, 348. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 282. 

Manila surrenders, 354. 

Marietta, Ohio, 183. 

Marion, General, 150. 

Marquette (mar'ket/), 81. 

Marshall, John, 187. 

Maryland, charter, 35; settlement, 
36; government, 36; religious 
toleration, 37. 

Mason and Slidell, capture of, 277. 

Mason, John, 53. 

Maximilian in Mexico, 322. 

Maxjflower compact, 45. 

McClellan, George B., 276. 

McCormick's reaper, 263. 

McKinley, William, first adminis- 
tration of, 346; second adminis- 
tration of, 364; assassinated, 365. 

Men of letters, 265. 

Menendez de Aviles, Pedro (ma- 
nan'dath da a'velas'), 21. 

Merrimac and Monitor, 278. 

Merritt, General, 354. 



54 



INDEX 



Mexico, war declared with, 243; 

treaty of peace with, 244. 
Michigan admitted 1837, 232. 
Miles, General, 354. 
Military review at Washington, 

316. 
Minis, Fort, massacre at, 210. 
Mississippi River, opening of, 290; 

jetties, 331. 
Missouri Compromise, 219. 
Mobile Bay, battle of, 307. 
Money, coinage of, 188. 
Monmouth, battle of, 145. 
Monroe Doctrine, 219. 
Monroe, James, administration of, 

217. 
Montcalm, the Marquis de, 95. 
Morgan, General, 15G. 
Morris, Robert, 135. 
Morse, Samuel F. B., 127, 240. 



N 



Naval force on the Great Lakes, 
221. 

Navigation laws, colonial, 101. 

New England, colonies, 43; United 
Colonies of, 53. 

New France, 84. 

New Hampshire, Ferdinando Gor- 
ges and John Mason, 53. 

New Haven, 52. 

New Jersey, 60. 

New Orleans, battle of, 213. 

New York, 57, 58; taken by the 
English, 59. 

Non-Intercourse Act, 204. 

Norse voyages, 7. 

North and South, population and 
advantages in 1860, 270. 

Northwest boundary, 324. 

Nullification, 228. 



O 



Oglethorpe (6'g'l-thorp), James Ed- 
ward, 40. 
Ohio, first settlement in, 184. 
Ordinance of 1787, 183. 
Oregon Country, 239. 



Pacific Railroad, 323. 

Pago-Pago, 359. 

Pakenham, Edward, 214. 

Panama Canal, 367. 

Pan-American Congress, 339. 

Pan-American exposition, Buffalo, 
365. 

Peninsular campaign, 280. 

Penn, William, 62; receives grant 
from the king, 62; founds Penn- 
sylvania, 63; his colony, 63; 
Indian receipt for land, 64. 

Pequots, the, 89. 

Perry, Oliver H., 210. 

Perry's treaty with Japan, 252. 

Petroleum, 264. 

Philippine Islands, 349, 354, 356; 
insurrection, 357. 

Pickens, Andrew, 150. 

Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, 
297. 

Pierce, Franklin, administration of, 
252. 

Pilgrims, in Holland, 44; their re- 
moval to America, 44; the voy- 
age, 45; Mayflower compact, 45. 

Pine-tree shilling, 54. 

Pitt, William, 94, 106. 

Plains of Abraham, 96. 

Plymouth Company, the, 28. 

Polk, James K., administration of, 
242. 

Polygamy, Anti-, bill, 334. 

Pope, General John, 282. 

Porto Rico Campaign, 354. 

Portsmouth, Treaty of, 372. 

Postage rates, 261. 

Prescott, General, captured, 136. 

Presidential election, 1800, 197 
1808, 207; 1812, 216; 1816, 216 
1820, 217; 1824, 222; 1828, 226 
1832, 229; 1836, 233; 1840, 235 
1844, 241; 1848, 248; 1852, 251 
1856, 256; 1860, 267; 1864, 312 
1868, 322; 1872, 326; 1876, 328 
1880, 332; 1884, 335; 1888, 338 
1892, 341; 1896, 345; 1900, 362 
1904, 369. 

Presidential Succession Bill, 336. 

Presidents, list of, 173. 

Princeton, battle of, 133. 



INDEX 



55 



Q 

Quakers, the, 61. 
Quebec, battle of, 95. 



R 



Railroad, first in America, 1831, 

232. 
Raleigh (ra'll), Sir Walter, 24. 
Read, Thomas Buchanan, poem by, 

304. 
Reconstruction, 318. 
Republican party, 255. 
Revolution, 100-164; who first 

foresaw it, 112. 
Rhode Island, 51; declared her 

independence, 123. 
Richmond, fall of, 309. 
Roanoke Island, 24, 284. 
Rochambeau, Count (ro-shon'-bo'), 

159. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, in Spanish 

War, 354; Vice-President, 363; 

President, 366, 370. 
Rutledge, John, 187. 



S 



Saint Marys, 36. 

Salem, settlement of, 47; Francis 

Higginson at, 47. 
Sampson, Rear-Admiral, 351. 
Santo Domingo troubles, 371. 
Sanitary Commission, 315. 
Santiago campaign, 353. 
Schley (sli), Commodore, 351. 
Secession, 268. 
Sedition Law, 195. 
Separatists, 43. 
Sequoyah (se-quoi'ah), 231. 
Sewing-machine, 263. 
Shenandoah, Confederate cruiser, 

308. 
Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, 

303. 
Sherman, before Atlanta, 304; his 

march to the sea, 306. 
Shiloh, battle of, 288. 
Sioux Indians, 325. 
Slater, Samuel, 179. 



Slave states and free states, 218. 

Slavery, end of, 293. 

Smith, John, 30. 

South Mountain, battle of, 283. 

Spain, treaty with, 1819, 218. 

Spanish settlements, 20. 

Specie circular, 234. 

Specie payment, resumption of, 
331. 

Stamp Act, 104. 

Star-Spangled Banner, 213. 

States admitted, California, 1850; 
Minnesota, 1858; Oregon, 1859; 
Kansas, 1861; West Virginia, 
1863; Nevada, 1864; Nebraska, 
1867; Colorado, 1876; North Da- 
kota, South Dakota, Montana, 
Washington, 1889; Idaho, Wyo- 
ming, 1890; Utah, 1896; 328, 3*39. 
(See also names of states.) 

Steamboat, the first, 206. 

Steuben, Baron, 135. 

Stewart, Peggy, the, 110. 

Stuart's portrait of Washington, 
189, 212. 

Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, 58. 

Sub-treasuries established, 234. 

Succession Bill, Presidential, 336. 

Sumner beaten by Brooks, 255. 

Sumter, Fort, 272; flag raised over, 
313. 

Sumter, Thomas, 150. 

Supreme Court under Washington, 
186. 

Surplus revenue distributed among 
the states, 231. 



Tariff of 1816, 220; of 1828, 225. 

Tarleton, Colonel, 157. 

Tax on tea, 105, 108. 

Taxation, American theory of, 103; 

English theory of, 102. 
Taylor, Zachary, in Mexican War, 

242; administration of, 249; 

death of, 250. 
Tecumseh, 208. 
Telegraph, Morse's, 240. 
Telephone, the, 328. 
Temperance societies, 262. 
Tennessee admitted 1796, 189. 



56 



INDEX 



Texas, Republic of, 237; admitted, 
is I.",, 248. 

Time, standard railroad, 335. 

Tippecanoe, 208. 

Treaties, arbitration, proposed, 371. 

Treaty, between England and 
France, 17(13, 98; with France, 
143; of 1783, 161-163; of 1814, 
215; of Washington regarding the 
Alabama claims, 324; with Spain, 
355; Hay-Pauncefote, 366; of 
Portsmouth, 372. 

Trent affair, the, 277. 

Tripoli, war with, 204. 

Troops withdrawn from the South, 
330. 

Tryon, General, raided Connecticut, 
149. 

Turks in Europe, 8. 

Tutuila (too tob-T'la), 359. 



U 



United Netherland company, 57. 

United States in 1790, 175; popula- 
tion, 176; how the people lived, 
176; industries, 178; manufac- 
tures, 178; commerce, 180; fish- 
eries, 181; whaling, 181; wealth, 
182; paper money, 182. 

United States in 1825, 223; indus- 
tries, education, church and 
state, 224; the Era of Good 
Feeling, 225. 

1'nitcd States in the twentieth cen- 
tury, 373; extent of territory, 
growth in a century, 373; Mis- 
sissippi Valley, Pacific slope, 374; 
irrigation, 374; immigration, and 
foreign population, 375; indus- 
tries and inventions, the elevator, 
376; trolley cars, education, 377. 

United States of America, name 
adopted, 128. 



Valley Forge, winter at, 141. 
Van Buren, Martin, administration 

of, 234. 
Venezuela, 344. 



Vermont admitted 1791, 189. 
Vespucci (vSs-poot'che), Amerigo, 

16-18. 
Vicksburg, siege of, 298. 
Vincennes (vm-s€nz'), capture of, 

148. 
Virginia, resolution of nullification, 

196. 

W 

Wake Island, 359. 

Waldsemuller | valt'za-miil-ler), 17. 

War, of 1812, 208; declared against 
Spain, 349; in the Philippine 
Islands, 349. (See also French 
and Indian, Revolution, Mexico, 
Civil.) 

Washington, at Fort Duquesne, 92; 
commander-in-chief, 121; crosses 
the Delaware, 133; administra- 
tion of, 186; first cabinet, 186; 
farewell address of, 192; death of, 
196. 

Washington, capture of Fort, 131. 

Wayne, Anthony, 149. 

Weather bureau, 327. 

Weathersford, 210. 

Webster-Ashburton treaty, 237. 

Webster, debate with Hayne, 227; 
7th of March speech of, 250. 

Weyler, General, 347. 

Whitman, Marcus, 239. 

Whitney's cotton gin, 179. 

Wild-cat banks, 234. 

Wilderness, the, 301. 

Williams, Roger, 49. 

Wilmot Proviso, the, 246. 

Winter quarters, 1776, 134. 

Winthrop, John, 48. 

Wolfe, General James, 95. 

World's Fair, at London, 1851, at 
New York, 1853. 252; at Phila- 
delphia, 1876, 327; at Chicago, 
342. 



Yorktown, 159. 



i \v*<i 



